STUDIES    IN   TRADE   UNIONISM   IN   THE 
CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


BY 


CHARLES  JACOB  STOWELL 
B.  S.  Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  1911 


THESIS 

Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for 

the  Degree  of 

MASTER  OF  ARTS 

IN  ECONOMICS 


IN 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 
OP  THE 

UNIVERSITY    OF     ILLINOIS 
1912 

(  Copyright,  KM^.,  by  Charles  J.  Stowell) 


Published  by  the  Journeymen  Tailors  Union  of  America 
r,  Il'irois,  l91&',>  ,'  >  ] 


PANTAGRAPH  PRINTING  &  STATIONERY  COMPANY 
BLOOMINGTON.  ILLINOIS 


PREFACE. 


The  paper  here  submitted  is  intended  to  form  the  basis 
for  a  more  extended  study  of  trade  unionism  in  the  custom 
tailoring  trade.  The  attempt  has  been  made,  however,  to 
give  the  present  chapters  some  value  apart  from  the  more 
thorough  investigation  which  has  been  planned  for  the 
future.  The  writer  was  employed  in  the  general  office  of 
the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of  America  from  1902  to 
1911  and  has  had  opportunity  to  study  the  organization  and 
policies  of  the  union;  it  was  primarily  for  this  reason  that 
the  present  subject  was  chosen  for  a  thesis. 

The  officers  and  members  of  the  Tailors'  Union  have 
been  of  great  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  study, 
special  thanks  being  due  to  Mr.  E.  J.  Brais,  secretary  of  the 
union,  and  to  Mr.  John  B.  L,ennon,  former  secretary.  The 
writer  also  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation  of  criticism 
and  advice  given  by  members  of  the  Economics  Seminary, 
University  of  Illinois. 

CHARTS  JACOB  STOWEU,. 
University  of  Illinois, 
June  i,  1912. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   7 

CHAPTER  I.    HISTORY  OF  THE  TAILORING  TRADE n 

1.  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  Times.     Rise  of  the  Trade  in  England. 

2.  History  of  the  Trade  in  America. 

CHAPTER  II.     PRESENT  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  TAILORING  TRADE  IN  AMERICA 
23 

1.  Character  of  Establishments  and  Methods  of  Production. 

2.  Seasons. 

3.  Territorial  Aspects. 

4.  Prices  and  Customers. 

5.  Concluding  note. 

CHAPTER  III.     HISTORY  OF  TAILORS'  UNIONS  IN  ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA, 
1721-1877    38 

1.  Early  English  Unions. 

2.  Early  Unions  in  America. 

3.  1860-1887.     Period  of   National   Organization. 

4.  Appendices : 

Appendix  A.     Outline  of  Tailors'  Unions  in  England,  1721-1834. 
Appendix  B.     Constitution    and     By-laws    of    the    Journeymen 

Tailors'    National    Union    of    the    United    States. 

1885. 

Appendix  C.     Biographical   Sketch,   John   B.  Lennon. 
Appendix  D.    Biographical    Sketch,   Eugene  J.  Brais. 

CHAPTER    IV.     STATISTICS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN    TAILORS'    UNION      OF 

AMERICA   97 

i.    Development    of   the   Journeymen    Tailors'    Union     of    America, 
1883-1911. 
Table  i.     Condition  of  the  National  Union,  1883-1911 100 

(a)  Source  and  accuracy. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

Table  2.     Income  and  Expense 102 

(a)     Source  and  accuracy. 
•  (b)     Special   notes    (including  supplementary  tables). 


6  TABLE   OF    CONTENTS. 

Table  3.   Legislative  Sessions  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union 

of   America    109 

Special  notes. 

II.  Strikes  and  Lockouts in 

Definitions. 

General   Strike   Policy  of  the   Tailors'   National   Union. 

Causes  of  Strikes.     Specific  Union  Policies. 

Strike  Benefit. 

Table  4.     Strike  Benefit  Regulations,  1884-1910 117 

Table  5.    Expenditure     for     Organizing    Purposes,     Strike 
Benefits,  Dearth  Benefits,  and  Sick  Benefits.  .118 

History  of   Strikes,   1881-1911. 

Table  6.     Strikes    and    Lockouts    in    the    Tailoring    Trade, 
1881-1911 119 

(a)  Source  and  accuracy. 

(b)  Definitions  and  notation. 

(c)  Special  notes. 

III.  Wages  and  Conditions  of  Union  Tailors,  January  I,  1912 128 

Plan  of  investigation. 

List  of  local  unions  and  questionnaire. 

Probable  accuracy  of  returns. 

Guide  to  the  tables. 

Classification  by  geographical  sections. 

Summary  of  returns,  by  sections. 

Summary  of  large  cities  making  returns. 

Table  7.     General  Statistics.     Statistics  of  Organization 139 

(a)  Notation. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

(c)  Analysis    and    conclusions,    (including  supplementary 
tables). 

Table  8.     Nature  of  Shops.     Systems  of  Production  and  Wage 
Payment    151 

(a)  Notation. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

(c)  Analysis  and  conclusions. 

Table  9.    Wages  and  Prices Insert,  opposite  p.  158 

(a)  Methods  of  wage  payment. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

(c)  Analysis    and    conclusions     (including    supplementary 
tables). 

Concluding     note,     wages    and    conditions     of     union 
tailors. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


I.    GENERAL  WORKS  ON  LABOR,  ENGLISH. 

BRENTANO,  Lujo.  On  the  History  and  Development  of  Gilds  and  the 
Origin  of  Trade  Unions.  London,  1870. 

UNWIN,  GEORGE.     Gilds  and  Companies  of  London.  London,   1908. 

UNWIN,  GEORGE.  Industrial  Organization  in  the  i6th  and  I7th  Centuries. 
Oxford,  1904. 

WEBB,  SIDNEY  AND  BEATRICE.  History  of  Trade  Unionism.  New  ed., 
Longmans,  New  York,  1911. 

WEBB,  SIDNEY  AND  BEATRICE.  Industrial  Democracy.  2  V.  Longmans, 
New  York,  1897. 

II.     GENERAL  WORKS  ON  LABOR,  AMERICAN. 
ABBOTT,  EDITH.     Women  in   Industry.     New  York,   1910. 
ADAMS,  T.  S.,  AND  SUMNER,  HELEN.    Labor  Problems.    New  York,  1905. 

BARNETT,  GEORGE  E.  The  Printers;  A  Study  in  American  Trade  Union- 
ism. Pub.  by  American  Economic  Association,  Third  series, 
V.  10,  No.  3,  October,  1909. 

BARNETT,  GEORGE  E.  (Editor)  Trial  Bibliography  of  American  Trade 
Union  Publications.  Baltimore,  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1904. 

CARLTON,  FRANK  T.  History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor.  Heath 
&  Co.,  Boston,  1911*. 

CLARK,  L.  D.  Law  of  the  Employment  of  Labor.  New  York,  Mac- 
millan,  1911. 

COMMONS,  JOHN  R.,  AND  ANDREWS,  JOHN  B.  (Editors)  Documentary 
History  of  American  Industrial  Society.  10  V.  A.  H.  Clark 
Co.,  Cleveland,  1910. 

HOLLANDER,  J.  H.,  AND  BARNETT,  G.  E.  (Editors)  Studies  in  American 
Trade  Unionism,  New  York,  Holt  &  Co.,  1906. 

KENNEDY,  J.  B.  Beneficiary  Features  of  American  Trade  Unions.  Bal- 
timore, Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1008. 

SPEDDEN,  ERNEST  R.  The  Trade  Union  Label.  Baltimore,  Johns  Hop- 
kins Press,  1910. 

III.     BOOKS  OF  TRAVEL  AND  HISTORY. 

BRUCE,  P.  A.  Economic  History  of  Virginia  in  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury. 2  V.  New  York,  Macmillan,  1896. 


8  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

MCMASTER,  JOHN  B.    History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States.    7  V. 
New  York,  Appleton,  1892. 

THWAITES,  REUBEN  G.   (Editor)    Early  Western  Travels,   1748-1846.     32 
V.  Geveland,   Ohio.     1906. 

IV.    AMERICAN  OFFICIAL  PUBLICATIONS,  FEDERAL  AND 

STATE. 

Census  of  the  United  States.     Decennial   since  1790.     Washington,  D.  C. 

Colorado,     ist  Biennial  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Den- 
ver,  1888. 

Industrial  Commission,  Report  of  the  United  States.  19  V.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  1900-1902. 

Massachusetts,      nth    Annual    Report   of    the    Bureau    of    Statistics     of 
Labor.     Boston,  1880. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor.     Third  Annual  Report,  on  Strikes  and 
Lockouts,    1881-1886.     Washington,   D.   C,   1887. 

Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  in  the  United  States,  Report  on  Con- 
dition of.     Published  as  Senate  Document  No.  645,  6ist  Congress, 
2d  Session.     To  be  in  19  V. 
Especially : 

V.    9.     Sumner,    Helen    L.     History   of    Women    in    Industry 

in  the  United  States.     Washington,  D.  C.,   1910. 
V.  10.     Andrews,  John  B.,   and  Bliss,  W.  D.   P.     History  of 
Women  in  Trade  Unions.     Washington,  D.  C.,   1911. 

V.     PUBLICATIONS   OF  LABOR  ORGANIZATIONS. 

AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR.  Proceedings  of  the  Conventions,  1881- 
1911.  (All  recent  numbers  published  in  Washington.) 

AMERICAN  FEDERATIONIST.     Monthly.     1894 — .     Washington,  D.  C. 

JOURNAL  OF  UNITED  LABOR.  1880-1889.  Official  Organ  of  the  Knights  of 
Labor.  Marblehead,  Pittsburgh  and  Philadelphia. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION,  JOURNEYMEN.  Constitution  and  By- 
laws, English  and  German  editions,  Philadelphia,  1865. 

TAILORS'  INTERNATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND 
CANADA,  JOURNEYMEN.  Proceedings  of  the  Eighth  Annual 
Convention,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1873.  Pub.  New  York,  1873. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION,  JOURNEYMEN.  Proceedings  of  the 
Ninth  Annual  Convention,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1874.  Pub.  New 
York,  1874. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION,  JOURNEYMEN.  Proceedings  of  the 
Tenth  Annual  Convention,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1875.  German  edi- 
tion. Pub.  New  York,  1875. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION,  JOURNEYMEN.  Proceedings  of  the 
Eleventh  Annual  Convention,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1876.  Ger- 
man edition.  Pub.  St.  Louis,  1876. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  9 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  TRADE'S  UNION,  JOURNEYMEN.  Twelfth  Annual  Re- 
port of  Officers,  1877.  Pub.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1877. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  UNION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  JOURNEYMEN.  Con- 
stitution and  By-laws,  also  Proceedings,  of  the  2d  Annual 
Convention,  Chicago,  Aug.  11-14,  1884.  Pub.  New  York,  1884. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  UNION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  JOURNEYMEN.  Con- 
stitution and  by-laws,  also  proceedings  of  3rd  Annual  Con- 
vention, Baltimore,  August  10-15,  1885.  Pub.  New  York,  1885. 

TAILORS'  NATIONAL  UNION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  JOURNEYMEN.  Con- 
stitution and  by-laws,  1887.  Pub.  New  York,  1888. 

TAILORS'  UNION  OF  AMERICA.  JOURNEYMEN.  Constitutions  of  1889,  1894, 
1896,  1898,  1900,  1902,  1904,  1906,  1908,  1910.  Pub.  New  York 
and  Bloomington,  111. 

TAILOR,  THE.  Official  Organ  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of 
America.  Monthly.  New  York,  1887-1895.  Bloomington,  111., 
1895— 

VI.     SPECIAL  WORKS  ON  THE  CLOTHING  TRADE. 

GALTON,  FRANK  W.  The  Tailoring  Trade.  Published  in  a  series  en- 
titled, "Select  documents  illustrating  the  history  of  trade 
unionism."  Edited  under  the  direction  of  the  London  School 
of  Economics  and  Political  Science.  London,  1896. 

POPE,  JESSE  E.  Clothing  Industry  in  New  York.  In  Missouri  Univer- 
sity Studies  in  Social  Science,  V.  I,  1905. 

WILLETT,  MABEL  H.  Employment  of  Women  in  the  Clothing  Trade. 
New  York,  1902. 

VII.     MISCELLANEOUS  PERIODICALS. 

AMERICAN  TAILOR  AND  CUTTER,  THE.  Published  by  the  John  J.  Mitchell 
Co.,  New  York.  Monthly.  1878— 

COMMERCIAL  HANDBOOK  OF  CANADA.     Toronto,   1912. 

SARTORIAL  ART  JOURNAL.  Published  by  the  John  J.  Mitchell  Co.,  New 
York.  Monthly.  1873— 

YALE  REVIEW,  THE.     New  Haven,  1892— 

Note.  In  the  footnotes  to  the  following  pages,  "Doc.  Hist."  stands 
for  Commons  and  Andrews'  "Documentary  History  of  American  Indus- 
trial Society";  and  "Sen.  Doc."  for  "Senate  Document." 


CHAPTER  I. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  TAILORING  TRADE. 

i.     Ancient  and  Mediaeval   Times.    Rise  of  the  Trade  in 
England. 

It  has  often  been  said  in  jest,  that  tailoring  is  the  oldest 
of  the  mechanical  occupations,  inasmuch  as 

"Adam  himself  'twas  he  begun  the  trade, 
And  for  himself  and  Eve  both  aprons  made."1 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the  trade  is  an 
ancient  one.  It  is  especially  true  of  this  industry,  that  in 
the  olden  times  it  was  confined  to  the  household.  During 
the  period  covered  by  ancient  history,  it  is  probable  that 
there  were  few  persons  especially  trained  in  the  making  of 
garments  for  others,  except  the  women  and  slaves  of  private 
households,  or  those  attached  to  official  or  royal  establish- 
ments. The  rise  of  tailoring  as  a  handicraft  belongs  dis- 
tinctively to  the  Middle  Ages,  but,  since  we  are  concerned 
mainly  with  its  modern  forms,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  start 
our  investigation  with  the  rise  of  a  strictly  journeymen  class 
of  tailors  in  England. 

There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  the  rise  of  such  a 
class  occurred  about  the  middle  of  the  i/th  Century.2  Pre- 

!"A  new  poem  on  the  Ancient  and  loyal  Society  of  Journeymen  Tay- 
lors, etc."  1725.  By  Henry  Nelson,  Bricklayer,  one  of  the  Brethren. 
Galton,  The  Tailoring  Trade,  p.  27. 

2By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  there  were  not  wage-working  tailors 
earlier  than  this,  for  there  were,  both  in  the  gilds  and  outside  of  them, 
and  some  of  these  workers  were  called,  "journeymen."  They  did  not, 
however,  form  a  permanent  class,  inasmuch  as  in  most  cases  they  had 
an  opportunity  to  rise  to  the  standing  of  a  master ;  moreover,  the 
method  of  production  was  not  capitalistic. 

11 


12  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

viously,  it  seems  that  wealthy  customers  bought  their  cloth 
direct  from  wholesale  clothiers,  and  then  either  took  it  to  a 
master  working-tailor3  to  be  made  up,  or  had  it  made  up 
by  a  tailor  in  their  own  household.  The  poor  made  their 
own  garments  or  bought  second-hand  ones.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  1 7th  Century,  however,  there  arose  in  London,  and 
probably  in  other  large  towns,  a  class  of  shop-keeping  master 
tailors,  who  were  "capitalists"  in  a  genuine  sense.4  Formerly, 
all  persons  recognized  by  law  as  being  entitled  to  engage  in 
the  selling  of  garments,  or  making  them  up  to  order,  were 
in  a  chartered  Company.  In  London,  for  example,  this  Com- 
pany was  called  "The  Company  of  Merchant-Taylors  of  the 
City  of  London,  and  the  Master  Working  Taylors,  Freemen 
of  this  City,  and  members  also  of  the  said  Company/'5  As 
implied  by  the  title,  this  Company  included  both  "Master- 
Taylors"  and  "Merchant-Taylors."  As  nearly  as  we  can  in- 
terpret the  language  of  the  period,  the  "Master-Taylors" 
were  recruited  from  the  comparatively  small  number  of 
journeymen  who  acquired  the  specially  skilled  part  of  the 
business,  namely,  the  cutting-out6 ;  whereas,  the  "Merchant- 

3By  "master  working-tailor"  is  meant  the  head  of  a  household  es- 
tablishment, in  which  master  and  apprentices  were  associated  upon 
equal  social  terms. 

4Galton,  p.  xvi. 

5Galton,  p.  xviii,  Footnote  I.  The  London  Companies  were  the 
successors  of  the  Craft  Gilds.  The  latter  had  included  the  master- 
workmen  of  their  respective  trades.  By  a  process  of  union,  selling 
merchants  came  to  be  included  in  the  Companies.  Both  merchants  and 
master-workmen  were  interested  in  maintaining  the  old  system  of 
monopoly  charters  and  apprenticeship.  Opposed  to  the  members  of  the 
Companies  were  merchants  who  did  not  wish  to  be  bound  by  the 
charter,  and  journeymen  who  desired  to  work  without  a  legal  appren- 
ticeship. (See  Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  13,  and  note.) 
The  Tailors'  Companies  seem  to  have  retained  their  connection  with 
the  trade  longer  than  usual.  Thus  Webb  states,  "By  the  i8th  century 
the  London  Journeymen  had  lost  whatever  participation  they  may  pos- 
sibly once  have  possessed  in  the  Companies,  which  had  for  the  most 
part  already  ceased  to  have  any  connection  with  the  trades  of  which 
they  bore  the  names."  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  13. 

6Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  25. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  13 

Taylors"  added  to  this  accomplishment  the  business  of  buy- 
ing the  cloth  needed  for  garments.  We  may  therefore  dis- 
tinguish the  cloth  merchant,  who  made  no  work,  but  simply 
sold  goods;  the  merchant-tailor,  who  both  sold  goods  and 
made  work;  and  the  master-tailor,  who  sold  no  goods,  but 
made  up  work  from  goods  furnished  by  the  customer.  All 
these  classes,  but  especially  the  merchant  and  master  tailors, 
regarded  with  indignation  the  rise  of  the  new  shop-keeping 
class.  The  master-tailors  of  the  Company  kept  only  one  or 
two  journeymen,  who  lived  on  the  master's  premises.  The 
shop-keepers,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  rented  a  shop  in 
a  fashionable  neighborhood,  giving  long  credit  to  their 
wealthy  clients,  and  employing  in  their  own  workshops  num- 
bers of  journeymen  during  the  busy  season.7  These  journey- 
men are  described  by  Campbell  in  the  London  Tradesman 
(London,  1747),  as  follows:8 

"The  next  class  (to  the  foreman)  is  the  mere  working 
tailor;  not  one  in  ten  of  them  knows  how  to  cut  out  a  pair 
of  breeches;  they  are  employed  only  to  sew  the  seams,  to 
cast  the  buttonholes,  and  prepare  the  work  for  the  finisher. 
Their  wages,  by  Act  of  Parliament,  is  20  pence  in  one  sea- 
son of  the  year,  and  half-a-crown  the  other;  however  a  good 
hand  has  half-a-crown  or  three  shillings.  They  are  as  numer- 
ous as  locusts,  are  out  of  business  about  three  or  four  months 
in  the  year,  and  are  generally  as  poor  as  rats.  The  house  of 
call  is  an  ale-house,  where  they  generally  use,  the  landlord 
knows  where  to  find  them,  and  masters  go  there  to  enquire 
when  they  want  hands.  Custom  has  established  it  into  a  kind 
of  law,  that  the  house  of  call  gives  them  credit  for  victuals 
and  drink,  while  they  are  unemployed ;  this  obliges  the  jour- 
neymen, on  the  other  hand,  to  spend  all  the  money  they  earn 
at  this  house  alone.  The  landlord,  when  once  he  has  got 

7Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  26. 
^Quoted  by  Galton,  p.  3,   footnote. 


14  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

them  in  his  debt,  is  sure  to  keep  them  so,  and  by  that  means 
binds  the  poor  wretch  to  his  house,  who  slaves  only  to  en- 
rich the  publican." 

As  indicated  by  the  above  extract,  wages  were  fixed  by 
law  and  paid  by  the  day.  Hours  were  also  fixed  by  law,  and 
in  1721  the  legal  working  day  was  from  six  in  the  morning 
until  nine  at  night,  allowing  half-an-hour  for  breakfast  and 
an  hour  for  dinner.9 

To  tell  in  detail  the  history  of  trade  conditions  in  Eng- 
land after  the  rise  of  the  journeymen  class  would  take  us 
too  far  afield.  We  must,  however,  note  one  matter  of  im- 
portance; namely,  the  early  existence  of  piece  rates,  and  the 
opposition  of  the  workers  to  this  method  of  payment.  As 
shown  above,  the  early  journeymen  received  a  flat  time-rate, 
fixed  by  law,  the  law,  however,  taking  some  account  of  the 
difference  of  seasons.  The  first  mention  of  piece-work  to  be 
found  in  our  references  is  made  in  connection  with  a  strike 
in  Birmingham,  in  I777.10  At  this  time  the  merchants  ad- 
vertised for  one  hundred  journeymen  tailors  for  piece-work, 
claiming  that  the  men  could  earn  sixteen  shillings  and  up- 
ward a  week.  This  in  a  counter  advertisement  was  denied 
by  the  men,  who  said  that  the  masters  were  in  reality  at- 
tempting to  get  cheap  labour,  and  that  at  the  piece-prices 
offered  it  would  take  an  extraordinary  hand  to  earn  as  much 
as  twelve  shillings.  The  strike  arising  out  of  this  affair 
was  prolonged  for  some  time,  and  there  is  no  record  of  the 
final  result.  The  essential  point,  however,  is  that  the  op- 
position of  the  men  to  the  piece-system  was  on  this  occasion 
practically  unanimous. 

By  1800  certain  "friendly  societies"  had  sprung  up  in  the 
various  trades,  including  that  of  the  tailors.  These  organi- 

9Webb,  in  preface  to  Galton,  The  Tailoring  Trade,  p.  v.  See  also 
in  the  same  work,  pp.  7-8,  the  reprint  of  "An  Abstract  of  the  Master 
Taylors'  Bill,  etc." 

10  Galton,  pp.  71-74. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  15 

zations  were  often  known  as  "clubs,"  and  so  far  as  published 
rules  are  concerned,  they  seem  at  this  time  to  have  been 
purely  beneficiary.  About  twenty  years  later,  however, 
(1818),  we  have  documentary  accounts  of  their  trade  rules, 
showing  that  they  were  maintaining  combined  activities  simi- 
lar to  those  of  present  unions.  Of  chief  interest  here  is  the 
fact  that  certain  sects  had  sprung  up  among  the  London 
Tailors'  Clubs,  one  division  being  known  as  "Flints"  and 
another  as  "Dungs,"  and  that  the  "Dungs"  accepted  both 
piece  and  day  work,  whereas  the  "Flints"  would  work  only 
by  the  day.  Galton  conjectures  that  the  "Dungs"  may  have 
been  inferior  workmen,  who  had  at  times  perhaps  taken  the 
places  of  better  men  during  strikes.11  However  this  may 
be,  the  acceptance  of  piece-work  by  any  organized  tailors 
shows  a  change  from  the  Birmingham  attitude  in  1777.  That 
piece-work  was  gradually  coming  in  is  also  shown  by  certain 
documents  published  in  1811.  The  first,  an  address  by  a 
Committee  of  Master  Tailors  to  the  trade  at  large,  complains 
among  other  things  that  the  masters  are  not  at  liberty  to 
change  their  men  "from  day  work  to  piece-work"  without 
the  leave  of  their  servants.12  The  second,  an  argument  on 
behalf  of  the  journeymen  against  a  bill  brought  into  the 
House  of  Commons  by  the  Master  Tailors,  recites  that  the 
trade  has  "a  printed  list  of  prices  for  work  done  by  the 
piece,  consisting  of  about  150  different  items,"  and  protests 
against  the  clause  in  the  bill  permitting  Judges  to  decide 
whether  or  not  the  piece-prices  constitute  a  "fair  propor- 
tion" of  day  rates.13  Finally,  we  find  a  stray  advertisement 

uGalton,  p.  Ixxiv.  See  also  p.  151.  The  term  "dung"  was  used 
in  America  as  late  as  1885,  meaning  a  "scab."  Thus  in  the  following 
extract :  "After  ten  days  strike  in  Cheyenne  against  a  'dung*  it  was 
lost."  (Secretary's  report,  Proceedings  of  the  1885  Convention  of  the 
Tailors'  National  Union  of  the  United  States,  p.  7). 

i2Galton,  p.   103. 
,  p.  117. 


16  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

regarding  a  strike  in  Edinburgh,  1823,  in  which  the  men 
take  satirical  notice  of  the  "fair  and  liberal  list  of  prices" 
offered  to  them  by  the  masters.14  All  these  quotations  show 
that  piece-work,  while  by  no  means  universal,  was  becoming 
known  in  the  trade  during  the  period  1775-1825.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  the  masters  favored  it  in  order  to  adjust  more 
readily  their  labor  costs  to  the  extreme  variations  in  the  sea- 
sons, as  well  as  to  pay  in  accord  with  skill  and  to  encourage 
"speeding." 

It  has  been  intended  in  the  foregoing  sketch  to  outline 
briefly  the  rise  of  the  journeymen  tailoring  trade  in  England, 
as  well  as  to  point  out  the  origin  of  some  of  its  peculiar 
features,  such  as  seasonal  difficulties  and  the  beginning  of 
piece-scales.  We  now  turn  to  the  study  of  the  American 
trade. 

2.    History  of  the  Trade  in  America. 

Early  History.  Records  show  that  the  tailor,  like  the 
blacksmith  and  the  shoemaker,  is  one  of  the  pioneers  among 
tradesmen,  and  is  usually  found  in  the  vanguard  of  settle- 
ment. Thus  we  find  that  there  was  a  tailor  with  the  first 
Jamestown  expedition  in  1607,  and  six  more  came  over  dur- 
ing the  following  year.15  These  tailors  belonged  to  the  class 
of  indentured  servants;  they  did  not,  however,  remain  per- 
manently in  this  class,  being  enabled  after  a  few  years  to 
work  out  or  purchase  their  freedom.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  1  7th  Century  the  system  of  indentures  still  prevailed, 
but  the  terms  were  short.16  Between  1660  and  1700,  several 

14Galton,  p.  165. 


of   Capt.  John   Smith,  pp.  390,  412.     Citation  is  given  by 
Bruce  in  his   Economic  History  of  Virginia,  V.  2,  p.  471,   note. 

i6"The  covenants  into  which  Luke  Mathews,  a  tailor  of  Hereford, 
entered  with  Thomas  Landon  of  Virginia  were  probably  fairly  repre- 
sentative ;  Mathews  bound  himself  to  serve  London  for  a  period  of 
two  years,  his  term  to  begin  when  he  reached  the  Colony  ;  the  remunera- 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  17 

tailors  became  the  owners  of  large  tracts  of  land,  one  as 
large  as  a  thousand  acres.17  This  explains  in  a  large  measure 
the  scarcity  of  working  tradesmen  in  the  colonies;  as  fast 
as  they  were  able  they  became  freemen  and  citizens,  and  it 
was  necessary  continuously  to  import  others  to  take  their 
places.  Thus  in  a  South  Carolina  document  of  1731  it  is 
stated:  "Artificers  are  so  scarce  at  present,  that  all  sorts  of 
work  is  very  dear;  Taylors,  Shoemakers,  Smiths,  would  be 
particularly  acceptable."18  By  1785  tailors  seem  to  have 
been  more  plentiful;  we  find  a  merchant  of  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  who  advertises  himself  as  a  "Taylor  from  London," 
informing  the  public  that  he  has  recently  added  "several  ex- 
cellent workmen"  to  his  shop,  and  will  be  prepared  to  fill 
orders  more  promptly  than  before,  as  well  as  to  furnish  the 
English  styles.19 

Referring  to  methods  of  payment,  the  piece  or  at  least 
the  job  system  seems  to  have  been  begun  much  earlier  in  this 
country  than  in  England.  About  the  close  of  the  I7th  Century, 
the  wages  of  a  tailor  in  Virginia  were  90  pounds  of  tobacco 
for  making  a  suit,  and  from  40  to  60  pounds  for  making  a 
coat.20  A  hundred  years  later,  in  Baltimore,  wages  were 

tion  was  to  be  six  pence  a  day  when  working  for  members  of  Landon's 
family,  but  when  for  other  persons,  he  was  to  be  entitled  to  one-half 
of  the  proceeds  of  his  labor,  whatever  it  might  be."  Bruce,  Economic 
History  of  Virginia,  V.  2,  pp.  471-2. 

,   Economic   History  of   Virginia,  V.   2,   p.   474. 

.  Hist,  V.  2,  p.   174.     Reprinted  from  "A  Description  of  the 
Province  of   South  Carolina,"   Charleston,   1731. 

i*>Doc.  Hist,  V.  2,  p.  353.  Reprint  of  advertisement  from  the 
"Gazette  of  the  State  of  South  Carolina,"  Charleston,  Mch.  7,  1785. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  demand  for  custom  trade  in  the 
Colonies  was  decidedly  limited,  the  greater  part  of  the  garments  worn 
being  made  at  home.  "The  expensive  suit  of  the  custom  tailor  was 
worn  only  on  holidays  and  special  occasions,  ancj  one  such  suit  often 
did  service  for  a  lifetime."  (Pope,  The  Clothing  Industry  in  New 
York,  pp.  2-3).  This  fashionable  trade,  coupled  with  some  work  on 
servants'  liveries,  constituted  the  only  demand  for  the  tailors'  art. 

20 Bruce,   Economic   History   of  Virginia,   V.   2,   p.   472. 


18  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

still  reckoned  by  the  job,  and  the  journeymen  in  that  city, 
by  dint  of  strikes,  had  succeeded  by  1805  in  raising  their 
pay  to  eight  shillings  and  ninepence  per  job,  and  had  also 
reduced  the  amount  of  a  "job"  by  means  of  a  system  of  ex- 
tras.21 

During  the  first  half  of  the  igth  Century  there  seems  to 
have  been  little  uniformity  in  methods  of  payment,  although 
it  is  probable  that  the  piece  system  predominated.  It  is 
stated  that  in  Zanesville,  Ohio,  in  1819,  the  wages  of  tailors, 
"finding  themselves  and  working  fourteen  or  fifteen  hours 
a  clay,"  were  from  $7.00  to  $9.00  a  week,22  but  it  may  be  that 
the  observer  made  this  estimate  after  talking  with  journey- 
men about  their  piece-scales.  Methods  of  payment  are  spoken 
of  in  connection  with  strikes  in  Buffalo,  i824,23  and  in  Phila- 
delphia, 1827. 2i  In  each  case  there  is  clear  evidence  that 
"bills  of  prices"  or  piece-scales  were  being  employed,  and  in 
Philadelphia,  at  least,  it  is  clear  that  the  men  were  working 
in  shops  on  the  employer's  premises. 

It  is  believed  by  men  familiar  with  the  present  trade  that 
a  real  "itinerant"  system  prevailed  in  this  country  at  least 
as  late  as  1825.  Such  a  system  was  widely  known  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent  in  the  early  days,  especially  in  the 
rural  districts.  The  tailor  would  take  his:  necessary  tools  and 
travel  about  the  country,  stopping  at  houses  where  his  ser- 
vices were  required,  and  remaining  as  a  guest  of  the  family 
until  his  work  was  completed.  In  such  cases  the  cloth  was 
ordinarily  home-spun.  We  have  endeavored  to  find  definite 

2iMcMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  V.  3,  p. 
5«. 

22Hulme's  Journal,  1818-1819.  Reprinted  in  Thwaites,  Early  West- 
ern Travels,  V.  10,  p.  75. 

23 Doc.  Hist.,  V.  4,  pp.  93-95- 
24Doc.  Hist.,  V.  4,  pp.  99-264. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  19 

references  to  this  system  in  America,  but  thus  far  without 
success.25 

With  reference  to  the  distribution  of  the  early  tailors,  we 
can  only  repeat  what  was  said  at  the  outset  of  this  discus- 
sion, namely,  that  they  followed  the  progress  of  settlement, 
and  were  always  among  the  first  on  the  ground.  In  Pitts- 
burgh in  1807  there  were  thirteen  tailor  shops,26  and  in  Lex- 
ington, Kentucky,  about  the  same  time,  there  were  ten  shops, 
employing  forty-seven  journeymen  and  apprentices.27  Cin- 
cinnati in  1819  had  twenty-three  shops,  with  eighty-three 
workmen.28  About  1820  tailors  were  coming  over  from 
England,29  and  were  making  their  way  to  the  frontier  settle- 
ments, especially  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.30 
By  1834  they  were  found  in  Fort  Union,  a  fur-trading  post 
on  the  upper  Missouri,31  and  in  1846  we  are  told  there  were 
four  tailor  shops  in  Oregon  City,  in  the  Oregon  Territory,32 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  tailors  were  settling  in  many  other 
localities  ;  enough  have  been  cited  to  show  that  they  were 
closely  identified  with  the  western  movement. 

25We  are  informed  by  a  tailor  who  learned  the  trade  in  Sweden 
that  the  itinerant  system  prevailed  in  that  country  as  late  as  1880. 
As  manufactured  cloth  became  cheaper  the  itinerant  system  was  gradu- 
ally replaced  by  the  shop  system. 

26Thwaites,  Early  Western  Travels,  V.  4,  p.  247.  From  Cuming's 
Tour  to  the  West.  1807-1809. 

27  Ibid,  V.  4,  p.  186. 

28Ibid.,  V.  9,  p.  240.  From  Flint's  Letters  from  America,  1818- 
1820. 

29Ibid.,  V.  12,  p.  155.  From  Welby's  English  Settlements,  1819- 
1820. 


id.,  V.  4,  P-  247;  V.  10,  pp.  58,  75,  135,  271;  V.  12,  p.  195;    V. 
27,   p.  54-     From  various  writers  on  early  western  travels. 

silbid.,  V.  22,  p.  378,  note.     From  Maximilian's  Travels,   1832-1834. 
32Ibid.,   V.   30,  p.   296.     From   Palmer's  Journal,   1845-1846. 


20  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Rise  of  the  Ready-Made  Industry. 

The  fact  of  foremost  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
garment  industry  after  1800  is  the  rise  of  the  manufacture 
of  cheap  clothing  for  the  market.  This  movement  agrees  in 
point  of  time  with  the  development  of  a  middle  class,  who 
demanded  better  clothing  than  a  workingman's  suit,  but  were 
still  unable  to  pay  for  the  expensive  custom  suit.  The  poorer 
classes  for  a  considerable  period  had  depended  largely  on 
second-hand  clothing,  especially  in  England;  but  even  these 
found  a  use  for  the  coarser  grades  of  new  clothing.33  The 
garment- working  industry  may  therefore  be  regarded  pri- 
marily as  a  result  of  the  economic  demand  for  cheaper  ap- 
parel. 

We  are  accustomed  to  associate  the  ready-made  industry 
with  the  introduction  of  machinery,  and  it  is  true  that  the 
greatest  development  has  taken  place  since  the  invention  of 
the  sewing-machine  in  i846.34  The  industry,  however,  was 
known  long  before  this  date.  There  is  evidence  that  as  early 
as  1 68 1  master  tailors  of  London  were  making  up  garments 
in  advance  of  the  demand.35  The  first  ready-made  clothing 
in  America,  according  to  Miss  Sumner,  consisted  of  shirts 
for  the  Indians  and  men's  breeches,  which  were  made  in  1725 
by  a  woman  in  Northfield,  Massachusetts,36  A  little  later 
establishments  grew  up  to  make  clothing  for  sailors  and  for 
southern  negroes.  It  was,  however,  some  years  before  any 
considerable  demand  arose  for  ready-made  clothing.  When 
this  demand  did  come,  the  custom  trade  was  the  first  to  at- 
tempt to  supply  it.  Master  tailors  began  to  employ  their 

33 Pope,  The   Clothing  Industry  in   New  York,  pp.   7-9. 

34Ibid.,  p.   12. 

35Galton,  The  Tailoring  Trade,  p.  xvii. 

36  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  9:  History  of  Women  in  Industry  in  the  United 
States,  p.  120.  (This  work  will  be  referred  to  hereafter  simply  as 
"Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  9"). 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  21 

journeymen  during  the  slack  season  making  up  left-over 
cloth,  and  eventually  on  raw  material  purchased  expressly 
for  this  purpose.37  By  1835,  the  manufacture  of  ready-made 
clothing  was  well  established.  However,  "it  was  practically 
confined  to  men's  and  boys'  clothing  of  the  cheaper  grades 
and  to  shirts,  and  the  quantities  manufactured  were  necessar- 
ily small,  the  work  being  all  done  by  hand."38 

The  introduction  of  the  sewing-machine  brought  about 
a  revolution  in  the  ready-made  industry.  The  quantity  pro- 
duced increased  enormously,  and  the  quality  gradually  be- 
came such  as  to  present  a  real  competition  to  the  custom  work. 
In  the  endeavor  to  meet  this,  merchant  tailors  insisted  upon 
cheaper  production,  and  as  a  result  the  journeymen  began 
taking  work  to  their  homes,  where  they  could  be  assisted 
by  their  wives  and  daughters  on  the  machine  processes. 
Gradually  other  women  took  up  the  trade,  becoming  either 
tailors'  helpers,  or  workers  on  their  own  account.  Thus,  the 
making  of  trousers  and  vests  came  to  be  largely  carried  on 
by  women.39 

The  Civil  War  demand  had  a  great  influence  on  the  cloth- 
ing industry,  especially  in  the  ready-made  branch.  For  a 
discussion  of  this  period,  as  well  as  of  the  later  development 
of  the  ready-made  industry,  the  reader  is  referred  to  studies 
which  deal  in  the  main  with  that  industry  alone.40  We  have 
pursued  the  inquiry  only  far  enough  to  notice  the  origin  of 
the  leading  features  of  custom  work.  By  1865  this  trade 

37Pope,  The   Clothing  Industry  in   New  York,  pp.   11-12. 
ssSumner,   Sen.  Doc.   645,  V.  9,  pp.   121-122. 
39p0pe,   The   Clothing  Industry  in   New  York,  p.   13. 

40 The  following  works  are  of  value,  for  this  purpose,  some  of  which 
have  already  been  cited :  Pope,  The  Clothing  Industry  in  New  York ;  Sum- 
ner,  History  of  Women  in  Industry  in  the  United  States,  Sen.  Doc. 
645,  V.  9;  Andrews  and  Bliss,  History  of  Women  in  Trade  Unions, 
Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  10,  pp.  160-172;  Willett,  Mabel  H.,  The  Employment 
of  Women  in  the  Clothing  Trade. 


22  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

seems  to  have  assumed  much  of  its  present  form,  and  later 
changes  have  operated  not  so  much  to  alter  conditions  in  the 
industry  as  to  limit  the  extent  to  which  it  is  still  carried  on. 
The  following  chapter  will  consider  the  present  status  of 
the  trade  and  the  effect  of  the  constant  cheapening  of  pro- 
duction. 


CHAPTER  II. 
PRESENT  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  TAILORING  TRADE  IN 

AMERICA.41 

i.    Character  of  Establishments  and  Methods  of  Production. 

Before  considering  present  conditions  in  the  tailoring 
trade,  it  is  necessary  to  define  "custom  tailoring."  The  term 
"tailoring,"  as  colloquially  used,  is  sometimes  held  to  include 
all  work  upon  men's,  women's,  and  children's  suits.  "Cus- 
tom tailoring,"  however,  applies  only  to  the  making  of  cloth- 
ing to  the  order  and  measure  of  each  individual  customer; 
and  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  paper  it  applies  to  men's 
clothing  only.  This  is  in  accord  with  the  most  common  usage, 
which  applies  the  term  "garment  working"  to  the  ready-made 
industry,  and  "ladies'  tailoring"  or  "dress-making"  to  cus- 
tom work  for  women. 

There  are  few  industries  which  present  the  same  variety 
and  complexity  in  types  of  production  as  does  the  garment 
industry.  This  fact  is  as  true  of  the  custom  branch  as  of 
any  other  division  of  the  trade.  Here  may  be  found  every 
gradation,  from  the  lone  "entrepreneur,"  representing  in  his 
own  person  the  entire  establishment,  to  the  large  and  well- 
equipped  store  on  Fifth  Avenue.  In  describing  these  grada- 
tions it  seems  best  to  begin  with  the  smaller  establishments. 

41 A  considerable  portion  of  the  material  in  this  chapter  is  based 
upon  correspondence  and  interviews  with  practical  tailors,  and  upon 
the  writer's  own  experience.  Citations  of  authorities  will  not,  there- 
fore, be  found  as  numerous  as  elsewhere  in  the  thesis.  Statements 
with  reference  to  technicalities  in  the  trade,  where  not  supported  by 
citations,  have  been  revised  with  the  aid  of  the  officers  of  the  Jour- 
neymen Tailors'  Union  of  America. 

23 


24  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  small  towns,  and  on  the  less 
prosperous  streets  of  our  larger  cities,  to  find  a  tailor  who, 
in  the  slang  of  the  trade,  is  "running  a  tack."  This  means 
that  he  has  a  small  shop,  either  at  home  or  in  a  store  building, 
and  takes  orders  for  suits,  which  he  cuts  and  finishes  en- 
tirely by  his  own  labor.  This,  of  course,  stands  for  the  min- 
imum so  far  as  size  of  establishment  is  concerned. 

The  "tack"  could  be  enlarged  by  enlisting  the  tailor's 
family,  or  by  the  employment  of  one  or  more  "helpers"  to 
do  the  plain  work  and  machine  sewing.  The  next  step  toward 
increasing  the  scope  of  the  business  would  be  the  employment 
of  one  or  more  additional  journeymen.  This  would  raise 
the  tailor  to  the  rank  of  a  "boss,"  and  on  his  stationery  and 
in  the  newspaper  he  would  advertise  himself  as  a  "merchant 
tailor."  The  journeymen  might  or  might  not  employ  helpers. 
The  boss  would  continue  to  take  orders  and  to  do  his  own 
cutting.  These  "small  shops,"  or  "medium  shops,"  employ- 
ing from  one  to  a  dozen  or  fifteen  workmen,  are  the  typical 
establishments  of  many  of  the  smaller  cities;  they  are  also 
numerous  in  the  less  fashionable  districts  of  the  metropolis. 
If  business  warranted  the  boss  could  hire  a  cutter,  and  de- 
vote his  own  attention  to  the  management.  In  the  shops  of 
this  type  the  journeymen  include  coatmakers,  vestmakers, 
and  trousers-makers,  each  having  learned  some  particular 
branch  of  the  trade,  and  having  frequently  a  man  or  woman 
helper.  Apprentices  in  the  true  sense  are  found  occasionally, 
being  boys  or  girls  aiming  to  become  skilled  journeymen ;  but 
there  are  many  helpers,  mistaken  for  apprentices  by  out- 
siders, who  do  not  expect  to  learn  the  more  difficult  parts 
of  the  trade,  and  who  regard  their  employment  as  being  in 
many  ways  similar  to  factory  work.  In  addition,  there  is  a 
"bushelman"  or  repair  man  employed,  who  is  paid  by  the 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  25 

week,  and  has  about  the  same  wage  and  qualifications  as  a 
skilled  journeyman.42 

Referring  more  concretely  to  the  shops,  it  may  be  said 
that  they  are  often  on  the  same  floor  with  the  employer's 
store,  in  which  case,  if  situated  at  the  back  of  the  store,  they 
are  called  "back-shops."  In  other  cases,  they  are  found  on 
an  upper  floor  of  the  store  building,  or  quite  often  in  a  differ- 
ent building.  The  essentials  of  a  good  shop  are  light  and 
cleanliness.  In  these  respects,  of  course,  all  degrees  can  be 
found,  but  most  of  the  shops  furnished  by  the  bosses  for 
union  men  are  reasonably  decent.  They  are  usually  found 
over-looking  streets  and  alley-ways,  from  which  the  necessary 
light  can  be  had,  although  a  few  shops  in  the  downtown  dis- 
tricts of  large  cities  are  artificially  lighted.  In  the  daylight 
shops  the  benches  are  arranged  near  the  windows,  and  here 
the  tailor  squats  in  his  traditional  position,  plying  his  needle. 
His  other  equipment  and  tools  are  thimble,  chalk  and  tape, 
shears,  "goose"  or  smoothing  iron,  pressing  board,  and  sew- 

42As  a  sample  of  the  distribution  of  workmen  among  the  various 
branches  of  the  trade  the  following  statement  is  given,  showing  the 
present  composition  of  the  Tailors'  Union  in  Kansas  City,  Missouri, 
including  223  persons  working  at  the  trade.  The  figures  are  from 
the  local  secretary  of  the  union : 

Per  cent  of 

Trade  Number.        total  working  force. 

Coatmakers  138  62.0 

Vestmakers  27  12.1 

Pantsmakers  23  10.3 

Helpers  19  8.5 

Bushelmen  16  7.1 

Total  223  loo.o 

Estimates  given  by  three  officers  of  the  National  Tailors'  Union,  as 
to  the  probable  distribution  of  all  union  tailors  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  among  the  various  branches  of  the  trade,  have  been  aver- 
aged, with  the  following  result : 

Trade.  Per  cent  of  total. 
Coatmakers  56.0 

Vestmakers  16.2 

Pantsmakers  19.5 

Bushelmen,  helpers, 

and   weekly   men  8.3 


26  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

ing  machine.  The  boss  or  cutter  has  a  broad  cutting-table, 
which  is  often  in  the  main  store-room.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  furnishing  of  a  shop  is  simple,  and  does  not  require  a 
large  outlay  of  capital.  Usually  the  merchant  tailor  has 
risen  from  the  ranks  of  the  journeymen,  and  the  most  suc- 
cessful merchants,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a  few  part- 
ners who  uphold  the  social  end  of  the  business  in  the  larger 
cities,  are  recruited  in  this  way. 

The  fine  stores,  catering  to  fashionable  trade  in  the  larger 
cities,  frequently  employ  salesmen  and  cutters,  in  addition 
to  the  members  of  the  firm.  The  journeymen  employed  by 
these  stores  are  of  the  same  type  as  those  that  have  been 
described,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  work  in  private  shops  away 
from  the  store  building,  these  shops  being  furnished  at  the 
tailors'  own  expense.  The  following  list  includes  the  finest 
stores  in  several  large  cities.  These  stores  sell  suits  ranging 
in  price  from  $50  to  $125,  and  employ  the  best  workers  ob- 
tainable, paying  usually  a  little  more  than  the  average  current 
wages. 

Firm.  Locality. 

Dunn  Boston 

Bell,  James  W.  New  York 

Rock,  Matthew  New  York 

Muehler  &  Company         Philadelphia 
Bullock  &  Jones  San  Francisco 

Stevenson,  Harry  Chicago 

Berger,  Harry  Chicago 

De  Lang  &  Company         Chicago43 

43A  member  of  the  tailors'  union  in  Chicago  has  furnished  the 
writer  with  statistics  regarding  the  three  firms  in  that  city,  and  this 
information  is  herewith  submitted. 

Salesmen.  Journeymen. 

Firm.  (Including      Cutters  and    (Including    Helpers. 

firm)  Trimmers.   Bushelmen) 

Stevenson,  H.  4  5  85  8-10 

Berger,  H.  4  5  72  7-«> 

De  Lang  &   Co.  2  2  34  2 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  helpers  are  paid  by  the  journeymen, 
and  not  directly  by  the  merchant  tailor. 

The  Bell  store  in  New  York  employs  about  200  persons,  distributed 
as  to  occupation  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  in  the  Chicago  shops. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  27 

We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  the  typical  custom  tailoring 
shop,  furnished  by  the  employer,  in  which  most  of  the  jour- 
neymen are  specialists  and  piece-workers.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  understood,  that  while  probably  more  than  half  of 
the  custom  work  of  America  is  made  in  this  type  of  shop, 
there  are  wide  deviations  from  the  type,  some  of  these  ex- 
ceptions being  in  the  nature  of  survivals  from  former  con- 
ditions, others  representing  tendencies  of  a  transitional  char- 
acter. We  shall  first  speak  of  the  survivals. 

Home  Work. 

The  origin  of  home  work,  following  the  introduction  of 
the  sewing  machine,  has  already  been  discussed.  It  is  un- 
fortunately true  that  such  work  still  prevails  in  the  custom 
trade,  as  well  as  in  the  ready-made  clothing  industry.  Two 
types  of  home  industry  may  be  distinguished;  work  ob- 
tained directly  from  one  or  more  merchants,  and  work  ob- 
tained from  contractors  or  piece-masters. 

It  is  sometimes  true  that  a  journeyman  working  at  home 
will  take  all  of  his  work  from  a  single  employer.  Most  home 
workers,  however,  take  work  from  any  employer  who  may 
happen  to  need  help,  thus  working  at  different  times,  or  even 
at  the  same  time,  for  several  stores.  In  the  vest  and  trousers 
trade  especially,  contractors  or  "piece-masters"  are  often 
found,  who  make  no  work  themselves,  but  contract  with  em- 
ployers to  get  the  work  done,  and  then  give  it  out  to  journey- 
men to  be  made,  frequently  in  the  tailors'  homes.  A  "piece- 
master"  may  employ  as  many  as  five  or  six  men  to  do  the 
skilled  work  and  perhaps  fifty  girls  as  finishers,44  or  from 

44Where  so  large  a  number  of  workers  are  employed  by  the  con- 
tractor, he  usually  operates  a  shop,  the  work  being  mainly  either  for 
the  cheap  custom  trade  or  for  special  'order  trade.  The  contract  system 
is  found  in  nearly  every  branch  of  the  clothing  trade.  Even  some  of 
the  better  class  of  work,  usually  made  in  regular  custom  shops,  is 
handled  by  contractors.  It  is  difficult  to  trace  all  the  variations  of 
the  trade,  only  a  few  of  which  have  been  noted  here. 


28  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

that  number  down  to  eight  or  ten  workers  all  told.  This  is 
a  genuine  "sweating"  system,  and  is  so  called  in  the  trade. 
Home  workers  seldom  employ  outside  helpers,  but  are  often 
assisted  by  members  of  their  own  families. 

Private  Shops. 

Between  the  employer's  shop  and  the  home  shop  lies  the 
"private  shop."  It  should  be  noted  here  that  an  employer's 
shop  is  called  a  "free  shop"  when  furnished  to  the  journey- 
men free  of  rent  or  charges.  In  a  few  employers'  shops 
"seat-rent"  is  charged  to  the  journeymen.  The  practice, 
however,  of  paying  for  seat-room  is  more  usual  in  "private 
shops."  A  journeyman  will  rent  a  shop  and  then  sublet  seat- 
room  to  his  fellow-workers  at  a  rate  varying  from  75  cents 
to  $1.50  a  week  for  skilled  workers  and  50  cents  to  $1.00 
for  helpers.  This  system  is  adopted  by  journeymen  who 
want  to  work  for  several  stores,  but  who  do  not  want  to 
work  at  home,  or  who  have  no  home.  There  are  perhaps 
2000  tailors  in  New  York  City  in  private  shops,  and  these 
shops  are  found  in  many  other  large  cities.  Occasionally, 
these  shops  are  run  on  a  cooperative  plan,  but  more  often 
sublet  as  described. 

The  diverse  conditions  that  may  prevail  in  a  single  town 
are  well  illustrated  by  a  report  of  an  organizer  of  the  Tail- 
ors' Union,  who  was  traveling  in  Indiana  in  1896.  This 
report  shows  that  in  the  town  of  Kokomo,  having  a  popula- 
tion at  that  time  of  about  9000,  the  organizer  found  "four 
men  working  single-handed;45  two  week  hands  with  one 
helper;  one  man  working  at  home  with  his  wife  and  one 
helper;  one  boss  making  coats  with  a  helper  who  also  makes 
vests;  one  pantmaker  with  one  and  sometimes  two  helpers."46 

We  may  now  pass  to  what  have  been  termed  "transi- 

45Without  helpers. 

46J.  W.  DeFord,  in  Tailor,  March,  1896,  p.  4. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  29 

tional"  phases.  These  are  found  in  establishments  employing 
methods  similar  to  those  in  the  ready-made  industry,  and  in 
establishments  handling  both  custom  and  ready-made  cloth- 
ing. Ready-made  clothing  is  made  up  mainly  by  machine 
workers,  either  at  home  or  in  factories.  By  this  means  cloth- 
ing has  been  so  much  cheapened  that  old-line  custom  tailor- 
ing is  in  constant  danger  of  extinction.  This  fact  has 
obliged  merchant  tailors  and  designers  to  seek  ways  and 
means  of  meeting  this  competition,  and  the  favorite  plan  has 
been  to  adopt  systems  of  making  clothing  to  measure,  which 
at  the  same  time  will  employ  a  finer  subdivision  of  labor  and 
a  wider  use  of  machinery.  Such  systems  are  variously  known 
as  "factory,"  "sectional,"  or  "team"  systems,  and  serve  as 
good  illustrations  of  the  tendency  toward  cheapening  and 
specialization  which  is  today  found  in  most  industries. 

Under  the  head  of  "factory  shops,"  the  larger  establish- 
ments will  be  first  discussed.  These  establishments  make 
work  for  customers  in  their  own  city,  and  also  for  a  consid- 
erable surrounding  territory.47  Local  agents  and  traveling 
salesmen  carry  samples,  and  take  the  measures  of  individual 
customers.  The  specifications  are  then  sent  to  the  head  es- 
tablishment and  turned  over  to  the  cutter,  who  makes  the 
pattern.  An  employee  called  the  "chopper"'  then  takes  the 
pattern  and  cuts  the  goods.  The  trimmings  are  put  in  by 
the  "trimmer,"  and  then  the  job  is  sent  to  the  factory  de- 
partment. Here  a  "marker"  chalks  the  pockets,  button-holes, 
and  some  of  the  rougher  seams.  The  work  then  goes  through 
a  number  of  hands,  ending  finally  with  the  presser.48 

47The  writer  has  a  letter  from  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  of 
Oklahoma,  stating  that  garments  from  the  factory  shops  of  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis  are  sold  in  his  state.  In  fact,  this  trade  extends  to 
the  Pacific  coast. 

48One  of  the  largest  "factory  shops"  now  in  operation  is  that  of 
Kahn  &  Co.,  Indianapolis.  This  shop  employs  several  hundred  people, 
and  handles  work  for  customers  throughout  the  middle  west.  Similar 
shops  are  found  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  St.  Louis,  Chi- 


30  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

A  "sectional"  or  "team"  shop  is  held  by  its  advocates 
to  be  essentially  different  from  a  factory  shop.  The  follow- 
ing quotation  is  from  a  well-known  Chicago  designer  and 
teacher  of  cutting:49  "Section  work  is  by  no  means  factory 
work  and  is  as  different  as  day  is  from  night.  Section  work 
means  that  five  or  six  persons  work  together  in  one  group, 
each  devoting  his  energy  and  ability  to  the  development  of 
a  different  part  of  the  garment.  For  example,  a  section  of 
six  would  be  constituted  as  follows : 

No.  i.  Apprentice,  Junior.  Duties:  rough  padding, 
sewing  and  all-round  assistance. 

No.  2.  Apprentice,  Senior.  Duties:  pockets,  linings, 
individual  pressing. 

No.  3.  Tailor,  Junior.  Duties:  basting  under  canvas, 
linings,  basting  on  stay  tapes,  etc;  individual  pressing  and 
pressing  for  No.  i. 

No.  4.  Tailor,  Senior.  Duties :  Edges,  buttonholes, 
pressing  off,  etc. 

No.  5  Directing  foreman,  sleeve  hanger,  collar  and 
shoulder  adjuster,  etc. 

No.  6.    Girl  for  plain  sewing." 

The  same  writer  believes  that  sectional  work  is  the  hope 
of  the  trade,  and  that  it  will  be  gradually  adopted  for  high- 

cago,  Cleveland,  San  Francisco,  and  Seattle.  The  same  system  pre- 
vails in  several  smaller  cities,  though  not  on  so  large  a  scale.  The 
firm  of  Gray  &  Graham  in  Dallas,  Texas,  formerly  a  typical  old-line 
shop,  employing  about  forty  journeymen,  changed  their  system  to  the 
factory  plan  a  few  years  ago.  Previous  to  the  change  they  were  pay- 
ing a  good  piece-scale ;  coats  $8.00  and  upward,  pants  $2.75  and  upward, 
vests  $2.50  and  upward.  A  time  scale  is  now  employed  with  wages 
ranging  from  $3.00  to  $15.00  a  week.  About  fifty  persons  are  employed 
in  the  operating  department.  Only  about  four  of  these  are  strictly 
skilled  workers,  the  balance  being  operatives  who  have  learned  special- 
ized parts  of  the  work,  and  who  could  not  be  classed  as  old-line  jour- 
neymen. It  should  be  noted  that  the  change  to  the  "factory"  system 
usually  involves  a  change  from  piece-rates  to  time-rates  for  all  workers 
employed. 

49F.  T.  Croonborg,  in  Tailor,  Dec.,  1911,  p.  5.  Reprint  of  address 
to  Philadelphia  and  Boston  Merchant  Tailors. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  31 

class  merchant  tailoring;  in  fact,  he  states,  many  merchants 
are  already  using  this  plan.  In  this  opinion  many  of  the 
rising  generation  of  merchants  concur;  it  is  significant,  how- 
ever, that  the  older  men  still  cling  to  the  individual  system. 
At  a  Merchant  Tailors'  Convention  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
February,  1911,  Mr.  Edwin  N.  Doll,  a  well  known  New 
York  tailor  and  former  officer  of  Merchants'  Associations, 
spoke  strongly  in  favor  of  the  old  system  of  skilled  individ- 
ual work  and  hand-sewing.  In  this  matter,  he  was  not  in 
agreement  with  the  more  "progressive"  spirits  in  the  Con- 
vention, and  it  seems  probable  that  the  sectional  system  in 
some  form  is  destined  to  find  increasing  favor.50 

The  team  described  by  Mr.  Croonborg  would  be  suitable 
for  a  shop  of  considerable  size.  He  suggests  that  there 
might  be  as  many  as  fifteen  or  eighteen  sections  working 
on  one  floor.  A  modified  team  system,  however,  may  be 
found  in  many  smaller  shops.  For  example,  it  is  quite  usual 
to  find  in  New  England  towns  a  shop  with  one  journeyman 
on  the  bench,  who  marks  and  plans  the  work,  and  employs 
in  addition  two  or  three  sewing  girls,  a  machine  operator  and 
a  pressman.  Between  this  kind  of  a  shop  and  the  largest 
team  shops  there  are,  of  course,  many  gradations.  Occasion 
will  be  found,  in  the  section  on  wage-payment,  Chapter  4, 
to  speak  of  "weekly  shops,"  employing  some  "old-line"  jour- 
neymen, but  paying  them  by  the  week,  and  of  "mixed  shops," 
containing  both  weekly  workers  and  piece-workers. 

We  now  turn  to  the  form  of  production  which  is  the 
most  distinctly  transitional  of  all,  namely,  the  "special  or- 
der." Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  systems  already  described, 
the  local  agent  or  the  traveling  salesman  takes  the  measure 
of  the  customer  and  his  choice  of  samples.  However,  in- 
stead of  sending  it  to  a  shop  especially  adapted  for  custom 
work,  he  sends  it  to  a  regular  garment  factory,  usually  in  a 

so  Sartorial  Art  Journal,   April,    1911,  p.  450. 


32  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

large  city,  where  it  is  made  up  by  operatives  of  the  same 
type  as  those  who  manufacture  the  ready-made.  The  agencies 
vary  in  type,  some  being  conducted  by  local  special-order 
stores,  and  some  by  ready-made  stores  that  maintain  a  special- 
order  department.  This  type  of  trade  is  sold  in  all  communi- 
ties; an  especially  good  field  is  found  in  the  small  towns 
and  the  rural  districts,  where  agents  sell  suits  to  measure 
practically  as  cheap  as  the  ready-made.  The  term  "special- 
order"  is  rather  loosely  employed,  but  in  its  most  proper  use 
refers  to  this  "garment-working  to  measure"  which  we  have 
just  described. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  character  of  establish- 
ments, mention  should  be  made  of  the  pressing,  cleaning,  and 
repairing  shops,  which  often  employ  a  journeyman  tailor, 
and  also  of  the  repair  and  alteration  department  of  ready- 
made  clothing  stores,  where  the  employee  is  called  a  bushel- 
man,  and  requires  considerable  skill,  being  distinctively  a 
tailor  and  not  a  garment-worker. 

2.  SEASONS. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  the  tailoring  trade  that 
it  is  profoundly  affected  by  the  seasons.  Few  industries  de- 
pend so  strongly  upon  climatic  conditions  as  does  that  of 
clothing.  To  give  the  exact  boundaries  of  the  seasons  for 
the  whole  continent  is  of  course  impossible;  they  vary  from 
place  to  place  and  from  year  to  year.  In  the  writer's  own 
locality,  the  North  Central  States,  the  distinctly  busy  seasons 
are  the  spring  and  fall.  The  following  table  shows  in  gen- 
eral the  trade  calendar  for  this  region : 

January  Poor 

February  Very  poor 

March  "Picking  up" 

April  Good 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  33 

May  Good 

June  Fair 

July  Poor 

August  Very  poor 

September  Fair 

October  Good 

November  Good 

December  Fair 

The  variations  are  very  wide,  and  as  a  result  practically 
all  the  evils  of  "seasonal"  trades  are  rampant  in  this  one; 
long  hours  and  crowded  work  in  some  periods,  and  in  other 
periods  virtually  none.  The  number  of  hours  that  a  tailor 
will  put  in  during  the  rush  reason  is  limited  only  by  his  en- 
durance. Twenty- four  hours  on  a  stretch  is  not  unknown, 
and  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  is  very  common. 

3.   TERRITORIAL  ASPECTS. 

With  reference  to  territorial  aspects  of  the  industry, 
climate  of  course  has  its  influence,  determining  the  seasons 
and  the  kind  of  clothing  in  demand.  In  addition,  there  are 
other  matters  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  terri- 
torial features  of  the  trade.  For  purposes  of  discussion  a 
broad  classification  is  adopted,  as  follows:  (i)  East;  (2) 
South;  (3)  North  Central  and  Middle  West;  (4)  Moun- 
tain and  Pacific;  (5)  Canada. 

i.   East. 

With  regard  to  the  East,  meaning  principally  the  New 
England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
widest  contrasts  exist.  Here  are  found  some  of  the  finest 
tailoring  stores  in  America;  here,  again,  are  to  be  seen  the 
worst  consequences  of  unrestricted  immigration  and  of  sweat- 
ing. The  system  prevalent  in  the  smaller  New  England 


34  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

towns  has  already  been  described;  the  larger  cities  are  not 
different,  except  that  the  "piece-masters"  handle  more  work 
and  employ  more  help,  and  not  so  much  skilled  labor  in 
proportion.  There  is  a  general  tendency  in  the  large  cities, 
like  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Washington  and  Balti- 
more, for  the  skilled  tailors  to  enter  the  contracting  business, 
or  at  least  to  employ  a  number  of  helpers,  and  even  the  finer 
garments  are  made  largely  in  rented  shops  or  in  the  tailors' 
homes.  The  journeymen  of  these  cities  include  numbers  of 
Italians  and  Jews,  who  are  often  content  apparently  to  raise 
their  earnings  by  indefinitely  long  hours,  rather  than  by  in- 
sisting on  better  rates.  In  former  years  the  Irish,  German 
and  Swedish  tailors  predominated,  but  in  later  times  they 
have  been  rapidly  replaced. 

2.    South. 

In  the  South,  as  would  be  expected,  the  heavier  garments, 
such  as  winter  suits  and  overcoats,  are  not  made  to  the 
same  extent  as  elsewhere.  In  the  warmer  states  much  of  the 
trade  is  for  tourists,  and  varies  with  the  winter-resort  sea- 
sons. Many  tailors,  who  are  without  home  ties,  and  are 
sometimes  known  as  "birds  of  passage,"  follow  the  trade, 
entering  the  Southern  cities  during  the  good  season,  and 
traveling  elsewhere  during  other  seasons.51  There  are  many 
English  speaking  tailors  in  the  South,  including  some  ne- 
groes. Good  stores  are  found  in  Atlanta,  New  Orleans, 
Charleston,  and  other  leading  cities.  Free  shops  are  prac- 
tically universal.  Some  Mexican  tailors  are  found  in  Texas 
and  other  states  near  the  border.52  With  the  exception  of 


Secretary  of  the  Tailors'  Union  in  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  re- 
ports as  follows:  "Few  men  work  here  one  year,  as  this  is  different 
from  other  towns,  being  a  health  resort.  They  only  stay  a  few  months." 

52It  is  stated  by  a  member  of  the  San  Antonio  Union  that  helpers 
in  that  locality  are  mostly  Mexicans,  who  spend  their  winters  in  the 
cities,  working  at  comparatively  low  wages,  and  then  work  in  the  coun- 
try at  farm  work  during  the  summer. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  35 

the  above  points  there  is  little  of  special  interest  connected 
with  the  trade  in  the  South. 

3.  North  Central  and  Middle  West. 

Conditions  of  immigration  in  the  large  cities  of  this 
section  are  somewhat  similar  to  the  East,  though  not  so 
aggravated.  Numbers  of  Italian  and  Jewish  tailors  are 
found ;  but  also  many  Germans  and  Scandinavians,  especially 
in  Chicago  and  Minneapolis.  Buffalo  and  Cleveland  contain 
many  Poles  and  Bohemians.53  A  characteristic  of  the  whole 
region  is  the  wide  range  of  territory  covered  by  the  factory 
and  special  order  business.  The  central  plants  are  located 
chiefly  in  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  and 
St.  Louis,  and  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns  in  the  central 
and  west  central  states  the  old  style  tailoring  business  has 
been  virtually  wiped  out.  Nearly  all  cities  of  considerable 
size  have  still  some  fine  merchant  tailoring  stores,  but  all 
have  been  affected  by  the  new  systems,  and  by  the  continuous 
improvement  of  ready-made  clothing. 

4.  Mountain  and  Pacific. 

In  these  districts,  numbers  of  Italians  are  found,  es- 
pecially in  San  Francisco.  The  changes  brought  by  factory 
work  continue,  but  now  under  the  influence  largely  of  Port- 
land, Seattle,  San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles.  These  cities, 
like  those  in  the  other  sections,  show  all  gradations  as  re- 
gards the  quality  of  the  trade.  The  movement  for  modern 
or  "sectional"  methods  seem  unusually  strong  in  Seattle,  and 
is  not  opposed  by  the  journeymen  to  the  same  extent  as  in 

53  It  is  the  opinion  of  Secretary  Brais  of  the  National  Tailors' 
Union  that  when  the  whole  country  is  considered,  the  leading  nationali- 
ties among"  union  tailors  stand  in  the  following  order  as  to  number : 
(i)  Scandinavians,  (2)  Germans,  (3)  Hungarians  and  Austrians,  (4) 
British  and  Americans  (including  Canadians,  Scotch,  Irish,  Welsh),  (5) 
Finns  and  Russians,  (6)  Italians.  The  Hebrews  are  not  listed  as  a 
separate  nationality,  as  they  come  from  several  countries. 


36  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

the  East.  The  question  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  labor,  so 
prominent  in  some  trades,  seems  scarcely  to  affect  the  tail- 
ors. Trade  conditions  in  general  share  the  remarkable  pros- 
perity of  western  communities;  this  is  especially  true  in 
Oregon,  Washington  and  California. 

5.    Canada.54 

In  the  Canadian  cities  tailors  are  more  numerous  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population  than  in  the  States.  This  in  the 
main  is  for  two  reasons:  (i)  The  changes  in  systems  of 
production  have  not  proceeded  so  far  in  Canada,  and  there  is 
more  of  the  old-line  custom  work  being  done.  (2)  The  cus- 
tom trade  is  better  than  in  the  States  for  the  reason  that 
there  is  no  tariff  on  imported  cloth,  and  suits  can  be  sold 
cheaper.55  The  Canada  tailors  are  not  so  migratory  as  those 
in  the  States.  In  many  cases  they  settle  for  life  in  a  given 
community,  and  often  become  prosperous  citizens.  The  lead- 
ing nationalities  are  English,  Irish,  Scotch  and  French  Cana- 
dian. A  high  class  of  trade  is  made  in  Canada;  the  Ameri- 
can styles  hold  sway,  and  Canadian  merchants  belong  to  the 
same  Associations  as  Americans.  At  a  Merchants'  Conven- 
tion and  style  show  held  in  Toronto  several  years  ago,  the 
prize  for  a  single  garment  was  awarded  to  a  Prince  Albert 
coat  made  in  Hamilton,  Ontario.  Methods  of  production  are 
similar  to  those  in  the  States,  except  that  in  the  States  pants 
and  vests  are  made  almost  exclusively  by  men  with  women 
helpers,  whereas  in  Canada  ninety  per  cent  of  this  kind  of 
work  is  made  by  women.  There  are  also  a  number  of  skilled 
coatmakers  in  Canada  who  are  women,  and  earn  the  same 
piece-rates  as  the  men. 

54A  considerable  part  of  the  information  given  here  has  been  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Hugh  Robinson,  Canadian  organizer  for  the  Journeymen 
Tailors'  Union  of  America. 

55It  is  the  belief  of  an  officer  of  the  National  Tailors'  Union  that 
a  suit  which  sells  for  $40  in  the  States  could  be  sold  for  $25  in  Can- 
ada, on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  tariff. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  37 

Concluding  Note,  Territorial  Aspects.  With  reference  to 
working  conditions  and  union  organizations  in  the  various 
sections,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  tables  in  Chapter  4, 
which  contain  reports  from  seventy-three  cities  containing 
tailors'  unions.  Matter  of  interest  also  will  be  found  in  the 
notes  to  these  tables. 

(4)    PRICES  AND  CUSTOMERS. 

No  discussion  of  a  trade  would  be  complete  without  some 
mention  of  customers  and  prices.  Custom  tailoring  of  the 
better  grade  is  distinctively  a  luxury,  and  the  rich  or  well- 
to-do  classes  constitute  upon  the  whole  its  principal  patrons. 
The  greater  part  of  the  trade  is  made  for  business  men  and 
professional  men  in  cities.  There  is  little  expensive  tailor- 
ing done  for  the  agricultural  classes;  the  farmers  usually 
patronize  the  special  order  or  the  ready-made.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  laboring  classes  as  a  whole,  although  a  custom 
suit  is  occasionally  bought  by  the  better  paid  tradesmen  in 
the  cities. 

In  speaking  of  the  fine  stores  of  the  country  brief  men- 
tion was  made  of  the  prices  paid  for  suits  by  customers  of 
these  stores.  For  high,  low  and  average  prices  in  union 
stores  all  over  the  country,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
tables  in  Chapter  4. 

(5)    CONCLUDING  NOTE. 

It  has  not  been  attempted  in  the  foregoing  outline  to 
describe  the  tailoring  trade  in  detail.  Such  a  task  would  re- 
quire a  volume  by  itself.  The  aim  has  been  primarily  to 
make  clear  the  broad  general  features  of  the  trade,  and  es- 
pecially those  that  are  essential  to  an  understanding  of  or- 
ganized movements  among  the  tailors,  to  the  study  of  which 
the  writer's  further  efforts  are  to  be  directed. 


CHAPTER  3. 

HISTORY  OF  TAILORS'  UNIONS  IN  ENGLAND  AND  AMERICA. 

1721-1887. 

i.    EARLY  ENGLISH  UNIONS. 

In  Chapter  i  a  brief  account  was  given  of  the  rise  of  a 
class  of  journeymen  tailors  in  England.  We  must  now  in- 
quire into  the  history  of  early  combinations  in  the  trade. 

It  is  generally  admitted  by  economists  that  the  trade 
unions  are  not  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  gilds,  but  are 
rather  to  be  regarded  as  simply  one  of  the  consequences  of 
the  varying  conditions  that  followed  the  breakdown  of  the 
mediaeval  system.  Continuous  associations  or  unions  in  the 
modern  sense  did  not  appear  until  the  divorce  of  the  worker 
from  the  ownership  of  the  means  of  production.  This  state- 
ment is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  first  combinations 
of  a  permanent  character  are  contemporary  with  the  rise  of 
a  capitalist  class.  The  rise  of  such  a  class  in  the  tailoring 
trade,  as  has  been  noted,  occurred  between  1650  and  1725. 
To  this  period  we  turn,  therefore,  for  the  first  trade  unions 
of  tailors. 

It  is  agreed  by  Webb  and  Galton,  the  writers  who  have 
made  the  most  careful  study  of  the  trade  in  England,  that 
the  first  organization  of  tailors  that  can  justly  be  termed  a 
trade  union  was  the  combination  entered  into  by  the  tailors 
of  London  and  Westminster  in  the  year  ijrai.86  Our  at- 
tention is  called  to  this  combination  by  a  complaint  of  the 
masters  to  Parliament,  which  is  found  in  the  Journal  of  the 

56 Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  38;  p.  39  (note).  Galton, 
The  Tailoring  Trade,  p.  xiv. 

38 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  39 

House  of  Commons  for  that  year.  It  is  believed  by  Mr. 
Galton  that  if  combinations  of  tailors  had  existed  earlier 
than  this,  mention  would  be  found  in  the  House  Journals, 
for  it  was  seldom  during  this  period  that  the  masters  in  any 
industry  failed  to  report  their  grievances  to  Parliament.  No 
such  mention,  however,  is  found.  Moreover,  there  is  no 
reference  to  combinations  in  the  "hand-books"  which  were 
supplied  by  master  tailors  to  journeymen,  containing  trade 
maxims  and  instructions.  In  view  of  these  facts  we  may 
accept  1721  as  the  date  of  the  first  "Journeymen  Tailors' 
Union,"  at  least  so  far  as  our  present  information  extends. 

In  connection  with  this  combination,  it  is  interesting  to 
read  a  part  of  the  merchant  tailors'  petition,  which  we  quote 
herewith : 

"The  Journeymen  Taylors  in  and  about  the  cities  of 
London  and  Westminster,  to  the  number  of  seven  thousand 
and  upwards,  have  lately  entered  into  a  combination  to  raise 
their  wages,  and  leave  off  working  an  hour  sooner  than  they 
used  to  do;  and  for  the  better  carrying  on  of  their  design, 
have  subscribed  their  respective  names  in  books  prepared  for 
that  purpose,  at  the  several  houses  of  call  or  resort,  (being 
publick-houses  in  and  about  London  and  Westminster),  where 
they  use;  and  collect  several  considerable  sums  of  money 
to  defend  any  prosecutions  against  them. 

"At  this  time,  there  are  but  few  of  them  come  to  work 
at  all,  and  most  of  those  that  do,  insist  upon,  and  have, 
twelve  shillings  and  nine-pence  per  week  (instead  of  ten 
shillings  and  nine-pence  per  week,  the  usual  wages),  and 
leave  off  work  at  eight  of  the  clock  at  night  (instead  of  nine, 
their  usual  hour,  time  out  of  mind),  and  very  great  numbers 
of  them  go  loitering  about  the  town,  and  seduce  and  corrupt 
all  they  can  meet;  to  the  great  hindrance  and  prejudice  of 
trade 

"This  combination  of  the  Journeymen  Taylors  is  and  may 


40  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

be  attended  with  many  very  ill  consequences;  inasmuch  as 
the  publick  is  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  labour  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  subjects  of  this  kingdom,  and  the 
families  of  several  of  these  journeymen  thereby  impover- 
ished, and  likely  to  become  a  charge  and  burthen  to  the  pub- 
lick;  and  the  very  persons  themselves  who  are  under  this 
unlawful  combination,  choosing  rather  to  live  in  idleness, 
than  to  work  at  their  usual  rates  and  hours,  will  not  only 
become  useless  and  burthensome,  but  also  very  dangerous 
to  the  publick;  and  are  of  very  ill  example  to  journeymen 
in  all  other  trades;  as  is  sufficiently  seen  in  the  Journeymen 
Curriers,  Smiths,  Farriers,  Sail-makers,  Coach-makers,  and 
artificers  of  divers  other  arts  and  mysteries,  who  have  actually 
entered  into  confederacies  of  the  like  nature;  and  the  Jour- 
neymen Carpenters,  Bricklayers,  and  Joyners  have  taken 
some  steps  for  that  purpose,  and  only  wait  to  see  the  event 
of  others."57 

In  reply  to  this  petition,  the  Journeymen  presented  argu- 
ments by  counsel  against  the  bill  desired  by  the  merchants. 
The  net  result  of  the  whole  affair  was  the  passage  by  Parlia- 
ment, June  7,  1721,  of  an  Act  (7th  George  I),  entitled,  "An 
Act  for  regulating  the  Journeymen  Taylors  within  the 
Weekly  Bills  of  Mortality."58  The  main  provisions  of  this 
Act  were:  (i)  Combinations  to  raise  wages  were  forbidden, 
on  pain  of  imprisonment.  (2)  Wages  and  hours  were  es- 
tablished and  penalties  set  for  violation  of  the  schedule  by 
either  masters  or  journeymen.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
Justices  of  the  Peace  at  their  quarter-sessions  to  revise  the 
schedules  if  necessary.  By  the  Act  as  passed  hours  were 

57From  "The  Case  of  the  Master  Taylors,  etc."  Quoted  by  Galton, 
PP.  1-3- 

58"Weekly  Bills  of  Mortality"  refers  to  parishes  or  districts  out- 
lined for  administrative  purposes  during  the  plague  of  1665.  The  term 
here  simply  defines  the  jurisdiction  of  a  part  of  London  and  West- 
minster. The  full  text  of  the  Act,  together  with  the  main  arguments 
and  petitions  on  each  side,  may  be  found  in  Galton,  pp.  1-22. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  41 

to  be  from  6  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.,  with  one-half  hour  off  for 
breakfast  and  one  hour  for  dinner.  Wages  from  the  25th 
of  March  to  the  24th  of  June  were  to  be  2  shillings  a  day; 
for  other  seasons  is.  8d.  Journeymen  were  forbidden  to 
refuse  work  at  these  rates,  unless  for  some  "reasonable  or 
sufficient"  cause.  By  this  law  the  tailors  secured  a  slight 
improvement  in  their  condition,  but  were  prevented  from 
continuing  their  combination  openly.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  it  was  still  maintained  in  secret. 

In  the  same  year,  1721,  a  legal  prosecution  is  recorded 
under  the  caption,  "The  King  v.  the  Journeymen  Tailors  of 
Cambridge,"  in  which  "One  Wise,  and  several  other  jour- 
neymen-taylors,  of  or  in  the  town  of  Cambridge,  were  in- 
dicted for  a  conspiracy  among  themselves  to  raise  their 
wages,  and  were  found  guilty."59  The  proceedings  in  this 
case  are  somewhat  obscure,  and  it  is  a  question  as  to  just 
what  law  was  applied.60  It  is  of  interest,  however,  as  show- 
ing that  the  movement  to  organize  was  not  confined  to  the 
metropolis. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  follow  in  detail  the  entire  history 
of  the  labor  movement  among  the  English  tailors.  It  is  de- 
sired, however,  to  bridge  the  gap  between  the  associations 
of  1721  and  the  beginning  of  the  movement  in  America, 
which  took  place  in  the  early  part  of  the  igth  Century.  For 
the  details  of  this  period  the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Galton's 
excellent  monograph  on  The  Tailoring  Trade.61  There  was 
no  very  considerable  interval  during  which  there  were  not 
disturbances  among  the  tailors,  and  many  of  these  disturb- 
ances were  widespread,  involving  in  one  case  as  many  as 
15,000  journeymen.62  As  long  as  the  system  of  legal  regu- 

59Galton,  p.  23. 

GOWebb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  61,  note. 

61  An  outline  of  the  history  of  English  unions,  based  upon  Mr. 
Galton's  work,  is  given  in  the  appendix  to  this  chapter. 

fi2Galton,  p.  xxx. 


42  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

lation  prevailed,  the  tailors  were  able  to  secure  some  ad- 
vances in  wages  from  the  Court  of  Quarter-Sessions.  Tow- 
ard the  end  of  the  i8th  Century,  however,  the  conflict  of 
interests  and  demands  among  the  master  tailors  themselves 
tended  to  confuse  Parliament,  and  to  prevent  definite  action 
upon  proposed  laws  regulating  the  trade.  Meanwhile  both 
masters  and  journeymen  were  evading  the  laws,  and  the 
workmen  were  coming  to  depend  more  upon  strikes  to  secure 
their  demands.  This  effort  was  handicapped  by  the  general 
Combination  Acts  of  1799-1800,  and  even  after  the  repeal 
of  these  Acts  in  1824  and  1825,  the  tailors'  "clubs"  found 
it  very  difficult  to  cope  with  the  masters.  Attempts  by  the 
journeymen  to  conduct  extensive  strikes  in  London  and  Man- 
chester in  1834  were  complete  failures,  due  in  part  to  the 
employment  of  women.  After  this  date  conditions  changed 
rapidly.  The  old  workmen's  clubs  were  breaking  up  in  all 
trades,  and  the  period  was  characterized  by  premature  ef- 
forts at  national  organization  and  general  strikes,  led  largely 
by  Robert  Owen."  There  is  found  here  a  convenient  point 
at  which  to  turn  to  the  American  movement,  with  which  our 
further  inquiry  is  to  be  mainly  occupied. 

2.   EARLY  UNIONS  IN  AMERICA. 

It  is  obviously  impossible,  without  access  to  old  news- 
papers, journals,  and  union  records  of  the  period,  to  give 
an  exhaustive  account  of  tailors'  organizations  and  strikes  in 
America.  The  writer  has  been  obliged  to  rely  largely  upon 
scattered  and  miscellaneous  sources,  and  it  is  not  claimed 
that  the  study  here  submitted  is  complete.  It  may,  however, 
serve  in  some  measure  to  illustrate  the  history  and  conditions 
of  the  tailors  during  the  past  century. 

Colonial  Period,  1607-1776.  In  Chapter  i  a  few  refer- 
ences were  made  to  the  tailoring  trade  in  the  Colonies.  The 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  43 

union  movement  does  not,  however,  really  begin  in  any  trade 
until  practically  the  close  of  the  Colonial  Period. 

1776-1820.  The  earliest  American  trade  union,  accord- 
ing to  Professor  Commons,  was  the  Federal  Society  of 
Journeymen  Cordwainers,  organized  in  Philadelphia  in  1794. 
If  this  be  accepted,  the  tailors  were  not  far  behind,  for  they 
were  striking  in  Baltimore  in  1795,  and  are  said  to  have  had 
a  society  in  that  city  for  some  time  previous.  There  was 
another  strike  in  the  same  city  in  i8o5.63  By  the  year  1806 
at  least  three  additional  unions  had  been  organized — Phila- 
delphia, New  York  and  Boston.64  There  was  a  strike  in 
New  York  in  1819  to  prevent  the  employment  of  women.65 
It  seems  probable,  however,  that  the  societies  were  not  as 
yet  upon  a  firm  basis,  and  that  their  militant  activities  be- 
long to  a  later  period. 

1820-1840.     A  good  characterization  of  this  period,  in- 
cluding an  allusion  to  the  tailoring  trade,  is   found  in  the 
following  extract:66 
•   "The  first  period  in  American  trade  unionism  begins  prac- 

63"Associations  of  journeymen  of  one  trade  were  almost  invaria- 
bly for  the  purpose  of  regulating  wages.  When,  therefore,  about  1805, 
the  pay  of  the  unskilled  laborer  began  to  rise,  and  that  of  the  skilled 
laborer  did  not,  a  serious  of  strikes  was  inaugurated.  The  journeymen 
tailors  of  Baltimore  had  one  as  early  as  1795,  and  forced  wages  up  to 
seven  shillings  and  sixpence  per  job,  and  another  in  October,  1805,  when 
the  pay  per  job  was  fixed  at  eight  shillings  and  ninepence,  and  a 
system  of  'extras'  introduced,  by  which  what  had  once  been  four  jobs 
was  at  last  made  to  count  as  eight."  McMaster,  History  of  the  Peo- 
ple of  the  United  States,  V.  3,  p.  511. 

64The  Philadelphia  Union  is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  by  the 
Colorado  Commissioner  of  Labor,  who  probably  obtained  his  informa- 
tion from  officers  of  the  Tailors'  Union  in  Denver.  The  Philadelphia 
union  was  composed  mainly  of  English  tailors,  who  until  its  organiza- 
tion had  retained  their  membership  in  English  unions.  (Colo.,  Biennial 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  1899-1900,  p.  336).  The 
New  York  union  is  vouched  for  by  Professor  Carlton,  (History  and 
Problems  of  Organized  Labor,  p.  17),  and  the  Boston  union  by  its 
present  officers  and  members,  who  celebrated  the  Centennial  in  1906. 
(Tailor,  November,  1906,  p.  17). 

65Sumner,  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  9,  P-  120. 

66 Andrews  and  Bliss,  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  10,  p.  21. 


44  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

tically  with  the  year  1825  and  extends  to  1840.  It  was  a 
period  of  experiment,  of  temporary  successes,  of  humanitar- 
ian awakenings,  of  new  agitations.  The  year  1825  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  first  extensive  strikes  for  the  ten-hour 
day.  In  1827,  in  Philadelphia,  the  first  city  federation  of 
labor,  the  Mechanics'  Union  of  Trade  Associations,  was  or- 
ganized. In  January  of  the  following  year  the  first  wage- 
earners  paper,  the  Mechanics'  Free  Press,  was  established  in 
Philadelphia.  At  the  same  time  in  the  same  city  the  first 
labor  party  was  formed.  In  New  York,  in  1834,  the  first 
national  trade  union  was  organized,  and  for  three  years  it 
brought  together  in  annual  convention  the  scattered  repre- 
sentatives of  organized  labor,  until  the  panic  of  1837  brought 
the  movement  to  an  abrupt  close.  But  in  the  meantime  trade 
unionism  had  induced  many  reforms.  Among  the  questions 
discussed  were  popular  education,  public  lands,  prison  labor, 
immigration,  and  child  labor.  Another  problem,  the  posi- 
tion and  influence  of  women  in  industry,  was  already  pressing 
for  solution.  The  labor  of  women  had  become  an  important 
feature  in  industrial  life,  and  with  the  beginning  of  the 
general  trade-union  movement  organizations  of  female  wage- 
workers  were  formed. 

"Indications  of  protective  organization  among  the  tail- 
oresses  of  New  'York  are  found  as  early  as  April,  1825. 
Newspapers  of  other  cities,  commenting  upon  this  effort  of 
the  young  women  tailoresses,  predicted  that  their  meeting 
would  result  in  a  'turn-out  for  higher  wages.'  But  the  novelty 
of  the  situation  at  that  time  was  plainly  reflected  in  the 
editorial  exclamation:  'What  next?"1 

The  first  tailors'  strike  in  America  of  which  we  have  any- 
thing like  a  detailed  account  is  that  which  occurred  in  Buffalo 
in  1824.  On  this  occasion  the  Journeymen  were  tried  for 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  45 

conspiracy,  and  after  two  trials  were  found  guilty  and  each 
find  $2.oo.67 

Of  still  greater  importance  was  the  strike  and  conspiracy 
trial  in  Philadelphia  in  1827.  The  proceedings  of  the  trial 
are  preserved  practically  complete,68  and  are  of  great  inter- 
est, as  nearly  all  the  circumstances  of  the  original  contro- 
versy, as  well  as  the  nature  and  rules  of  tailors'  societies  in 
Philadelphia  at  this  time,  were  thoroughly  reviewed  in  the 
trial.  The  original  dispute  arose  over  the  price  which  should 
be  paid  for  making  a  "lady's  riding  habit,  of  thin  pongee." 
Such  a  garment  was  not  mentioned  in  the  bill  of  prices  signed 
by  the  employers,  who  offered  about  six  dollars  for  the  work, 
claiming  that  a  similar  piece  of  work  had  been  previously 
paid  for  at  that  rate  by  a  merchant  in  the  city.  The  Jour- 
neymen claimed  that  the  garment  now  in  question  had  called 
for  certain  "extras"  not  on  the  riding  habit  taken  as  a  stand- 
ard by  the  employers,  and  that  the  price  should  be  increased 

^Information  regarding  this  strike  is  found  in  the  Buffalo  Em- 
porium, Dec.  25,  1824.  The  following  note  is  based  upon  a  quotation 
in  the  Documentary  History  of  American  Industrial  Society,  V.  4,  pp. 
93-95- 

"On  Monday  last  all  the  journeymen  tailors  of  the  village  had 
what  they  call  a  turn  out  for  higher  wages.  They  presented  to  their 
employers  bills  of  prices."  The  demands  were  refused.  Several  of 
the  journeymen  were  brought  up  the  next  day  before  a  court  of  special 
sessions  and  tried  for  conspiracy.  The  custom  was  proved  to  exist 
throughout  the  United  States  to  stigmatize  persons  who  worked  during 
strikes.  The  "Flints,"  or  loyal  tailors,  took  care  to  spread  informa- 
tion of  such  persons. 

In  the  argument,  the  prosecution  contended  that  it  was  the  act 
of  combination  that  constituted  the  crime,  and  not  the  refusal  to  labor. 
The  English  Courts  and  several  labor  cases  in  New  York  City  was 
cited.  In  reply  counsel  for  the  defendants  claimed  that  conspiracy  in 
such  cases  was  not  known  at  common  law,  and  that  it  was  covered  by 
special  statute  in  England,  no  such  statute  having  ever  been  adopted 
in  America.  "To  make  the  conduct  of  these  defendants  criminal,"  the 
speaker  added,  "would  be  contrary  to  the  genius  of  our  institutions  and 
an  abridgement  of  our  rights." 

The  first  jury  disagreed,  but  the  second  brought  in  a  verdict  of 
guilty,  and  the  sentence  was  as  noted  above. 

68The  Trial  of  Twenty-four  Journeymen  Tailors,  charged  with  a 
conspiracy.  Phila.,  1827.  Reprinted  in  Doc.  Hist.  V.  4,  pp.  99-264. 


46  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

to  about  seven  dollars.  The  employing  firm,  Ropp  &  Wine- 
brener,  paid  the  seven  dollars,  but  at  the  same  time  notified 
the  five  journeymen  involved  that  their  services  would  no 
longer  be  required.  These  journeymen  complained  to  fellow- 
members  of  their  tailors'  society,  (there  were  three  societies, 
all  told,  in  the  city,)  and  a  special  meeting  was  called  "to 
take  into  consideration  late  occurrences  at  the  shop  of  Robb 
&  Winebrener."  At  this  meeting  it  was  decided  to  call  out 
all  members  of  the  society  working  in  the  shop  unless  the 
discharged  men  were  reinstated,  and,  in  accord  with  this 
decision,  several  tailors  left  their  work.  Street  quarrels 
arose,  involving  both  bosses  and  men,  and  warrants  were 
sworn  out  on  both  sides. 

In  the  indictment  the  men  were  charged  with  eight  counts, 
involving  mainly  conspiracy  to  force  the  re-employment  of 
those  discharged,  to  extort  higher  wages,  and  to  "injure  and 
oppress"  workmen  who  were  hired  in  place  of  the  strikers. 
In  the  course  of  the  testimony  it  was  brought  out  that  the 
Tailors'  Society  to  which  the  defendants  belonged  was  work- 
ing under  a  "formal  constitution,  unincorporated."69  Work- 
ing on  strike  work  was  said  by  one  witness  to  be  "contrary 
to  all  rules  among  the  journeymen  tailors."  In  another  place 
the  definite  rule  of  the  society  is  quoted,  as  follows :  "Article 
14.  Any  man  going  to  work  at  the  time  of  a  turn-out,  and 
at  a  time  when  young  men  are  standing  out  for  their  rights 
in  this  city,  or  any  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  U.  S.,  if 
it  shall  come  to  the  knowledge  of  this  Society,  the  parties 
so  offending  shall  pay  a  fine  of  five  dollars;  and  after  pay- 
ing the  same,  if  any  member  shall  upbraid  him  for  his  former 
conduct,  he  shall  pay  the  sum  of  one  dollar." 

With  reference  to  the  enforcement  of  a  union  shop  rule, 
testimony  was  given  by  several  witnesses.  William  Robb,  a 

69It  was  charged  by  the  prosecution  that  copies  of  the  rules  had 
been  destroyed,  so  that  they  could  not  be  brought  in  evidence. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  47 

workman  called  by  the  prosecution,  testified:  "I  have  heard 
the  rules  of  the  Society  explained  by  some  of  the  defendants 
to  new  journeymen.  I  have  heard  them  say  they  must  join 
the  second  Monday  night  after  entering,  and  if  not,  they 
would  be  fined  25  cents.  If  they  persisted  in  not  joining, 
they  could  not  work  in  the  shop."  And  from  another  wit- 
ness :  "The  rule  was  that  when  a  man  had  worked  in  a  shop 
ten  or  twelve  days,  he  was  forced  to  join,  or  each  one  in  the 
shop  would  be  liable  to  a  fine."  The  counsel  for  the  prose- 
cution, in  the  concluding  speeches,  insisted  that  the  evidence 
had  shown  conclusively  the  existence  of  such  rules,  and  com- 
pared them  with  certain  written  rules  in  the  constitution  of 
the  New  York  Cordwainers.  The  testimony  for  the  defense, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  somewhat  different  from  that  given 
above.  One  witness  testified  that  there  was  no  rule  of  the 
Society  relating  to  journeymen's  work.  They  were  shop 
rules,  but  no  rule  of  the  Society.  Another  witness,  although 
called  by  the  prosecution,  made  the  same  statement,  and 
added :  "In  the  shop  in  which  I  work  there  are  journeymen 
who  do  not  belong  to  the  Society.  If  a  poor  journeymen  will 
not  join  the  society,  I  would  do  nothing.  If  one  who  could 
pay  were  to  enter  the  shop  we  would  recommend  his  join- 
ing, with  the  concurrence  of  our  employer,  and  if  he  refused, 
we  would  do  nothing." 

It  seems  quite  probable  that  the  conflicting  statements  on 
this  subject  are  due  to  the  fact  that  there  were  three  societies 
in  the  city,  which  may  have  had  different  rules.  Enough 
has  been  shown,  however,  to  indicate  that  the  question  of  the 
union  shop  is  by  no  means  a  new  one  in  the  tailoring  trade. 
The  jury  in  this  case  brought  in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  but  only 
upon  one  count,  namely:  "Conspiring  to  re-employ  T.  Rad- 
ford,  T.  Hough,  James  Wilson,  Thomas  Skeegs,  and  William 
Scott,  who  had  been  dismissed  for  demanding  greater  than 
the  usual  wages  paid  by  Robb  and  Winebrener  and  others." 


48  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

On  the  other  seven  counts  the  journeymen  were  acquitted. 
Motions  in  arrest  of  judgment  and  for  a  new  trial  were  made 
by  the  defense.  By  agreement  of  counsel  the  argument  on 
the  motions  was  postponed  until  the  December  term,  1827. 
An  inspection  of  the  record,  however,  shows  that  the  mo- 
tions were  never  argued. 

The  Philadelphia  trial  has  been  discussed  in  some  detail, 
as  indicating  that  a  tailors'  strike  in  1827  was  not  so  far  dif- 
ferent from  similar  disturbances  today.  The  proceedings  are 
also  of  interest  in  that  they  show  the  extent  to  which  trade 
union  rules  had  developed  at  this  date. 

Several  other  strikes  are  mentioned  during  this  period. 
In  1833  the  New  York  tailors  were  out,  but  it  was  remarked 
by  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce  that  it  should  be  an 
easy  matter  to  defeat  them,  since  "women  may  well  do  half 
which  the  men  have  been  accustomed  to  do."70  We  are 
reminded  here  of  the  tactics  of  the  London  masters  in  1834. 
In  1835  the  question  of  woman  labor  was  up  in  three  other 
cities,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  and  Louisville,  where  the  jour- 
neymen refused  to  work  for  those  who  employed  women. 
Additional  demands  were  for  increased  wages,  fewer  ap- 
prentices, and  the  privilege  of  using  the  back  shops  on  Sun- 
day for  beer  and  cards.71 

Of  equal  interest  with  the  Philadelphia  affair  was  the 
New  York  tailors'  strike  and  conspiracy  trial  in  i836.72  It 
will  be  recalled  that  a  Tailors'  Society  had  been  formed  in 
New  York  as  early  as  1806.  In  October,  1835,  the  members 
of  the  Society  struck  for  higher  wages.  At  this  time  they 
were  successful  and  returned  to  work  at  increased  rates.  In 
the  following  January,  however,  they  were  out  again  to  en- 

ToSumner,   Sen.   Doc.  645,   V.  9,   p.   120. 


,  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  Q,  o.   120:    Yale  Review,  V.   I,  p.  98, 
article  by  Evans  Woollen  on  "Labor  Troubles  Between  1834  and  1837." 

72The   Case  of  Twenty  Journeymen  Tailors  of   New  York,   People 
v.  Faulkner.     Doc.   Hist.,  V.  4,  pp.  315-333- 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  49 

force  a  "turn-list."  "No  one  was  to  take  a  job  out  of  his 
turn,  and  no  one  was  to  have  a  second  job  until  all  had  been 
supplied."  Serious  trouble  grew  out  of  this  affair,  and  the 
journeymen  were  indicted  for  a  conspiracy  to  injure  trade 
and  commerce,  and  for  insult  and  violence  to  non-unionists. 
As  a  result  Henry  Faulkner,  President  of  the  Society,  was 
fined  $150,  and  Howard  Vail,  another  conspicuous  leader, 
$100.  The  other  defendants  were  fined  $50  each.  This  trial 
had  important  political  consequences,  which  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  general  workingmen's  movement  at  the  close 
of  the  period  1820-1840. 73 

1840-1860.  A  good  summary  of  this  period  is  found  in 
the  following  extract: 

"The  period  1840  to  1860  in  the  American  labor  move- 
ment is  clearly  differentiated  from  the  earlier  period,  as  well 
as  from  the  periods  which  follow  it,  by  the  preponderance 
of  a  somewhat  vague  but  highly  humanitarian  spirit.  It 
was  preeminently  the  age  of  lofty  enthusiasms.  Ideal  con- 
ceptions of  social  order  found  expression  through  the  Amer- 
icanization by  Brisbane  of  the  French  philosophy  of  Fourier. 
Mechanical  'phalanxes'  took  on  the  form  of  pleasing  pictures 
of  community  life  through  the  glowing  descriptions  of  lead- 
ing writers  and  speakers  of  that  day.  George  Ripley,  George 
William  Curtis,  Charles  A.  Dana,  and  Margaret  Fuller  joined 
in  the  delights  and  in  singing  the  praises  of  the  most  famous 

73 "The  trades-union  movement  reached  its  climax  in  1836.  The 
National  Convention  of  that  year  shows  the  beginnings  of  disintegra- 
tion in  the  hopelessness  of  strikes  and  the  attention  given  to  panaceas 
and  legislation.  The  turning  point  came  in  New  York,  where  the  em- 
ployers formed  a  counter-organization  of  all  lines  of  business  and  made 
a  test  on  the  tailors.  Twenty  were  convicted  of  conspiracy.  The  trial 
was  attended  by  crowds.  A  mass-meeting  of  protest  was  held  in  the 
Park.  It  called  a  State  Convention,  and  the  working  men  went  over 
to  the  Equal  Rights,  or  Loco-foco  Party,  to  aid  in  its  attack  on  banks 
and  chartered  monopolies.  Tammany  lost  control  of  the  city,  and  only 
Ely  Moore,  the  president  of  the  Trades'  Union,  whom  Tammany  had 
nominated  for  Congress,  saved  the  remnant.  The  Trades'  Union  dwin- 
dled and  ended  where  the  movement  of  1829  began,  in  politics."  (Doc. 
Hist,  V.  5,  Int.,  pp.  36-37). 


50  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

of  these  experiments — the  fairy-like  frolic  of  Brook  Farm. 
Horace  Greeley  furnished  the  most  influential  vehicle  for 
the  popular  expression  of  this  reform  by  fostering  it  through 
the  columns  of  the  New  York  Tribune  and  by  much  writing 
and  speaking  in  the  name  of  socialism.  It  was  in  1840,  too, 
that  Emerson  wrote  to  Carlyle :  'We  are  all  a  little  wild  here 
with  numberless  projects  of  social  reform.  Not  a  reading 
man  but  has  a  draft  of  a  new  community  in  his  waistcoat 
pocket.'  And  Hawthorne  tells  us  in  his  romantic  account 
of  the  community  in  which  he,  too,  was  personally  interested : 
'It  was  a  period  when  science  was  bringing  forward,  anew, 
a  hoard  of  facts  and  imperfect  theories  that  had  partially 
won  credence  in  earlier  times,  but  which  modern  science  had 
swept  away  as  rubbish.  These  things  were  now  tossed  up 
again  out  of  the  surging  ocean  of  human  thought  and  ex- 
perience'."74 

During  this  period  organizations  of  tailors  did  not  com- 
pletely disappear,  for  in  some  localities  they  seem  to  have 
acted  together  with  considerable  vigor.  It  is  recorded  that 
in  September,  1843,  nearly  all  of  the  journeymen  tailors  em- 
ployed in  Boston  joined  in  a  strike  for  higher  wages.  They 
were  out  only  a  day  or  two,  the  required  advance  being  in 
some  cases  granted,  in  others  refused.75  In  other  cities  the 
tailors  were  active  during  the  same  year.  It  is  stated  by 
John  Finch,  an  English  Owenite,  who  traveled  in  America 
in  1843,  that  the  tailors  of  Cincinnati  and  Pittsburgh  had  been 
involved  in  brief  but  successful  strikes.  He  also  gives  some 
interesting  notes  as  to  their  condition.76  In  1844  the  Phila- 

74Andrews  and   Bliss,   Sen.   Doc.  645,  V.   10,  p.   53. 
TSMass.   Bureau  of  Labor,   nth   Ann.   Report,   1880,   p.   5. 

76"The  tailors  were  out  when  I  was  in  Pittsburgh,  and  were  parad- 
ing the  streets  with  a  band  of  music ;  they  were  out  only  one  day 
when  the  masters  yielded,  as  they  had  done  shortly  before  in  Cin- 
cinnati. I  conversed  with  some  journeymen  tailors  on  the  subject. 
They  say  that  the  vests  and  trousers  are  mostly  made  by  women,  and 
the  coats  by  men;  that  the  keepers  of  retail  and  ready-made  clothes 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  51 

delphia  tailors  won  an  increase  in  wages  after  a  few  days 
strike.77  There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  in  this  year 
an  attempt  was  made  to  form  a  national  organization  of 
tailors.  The  Workingmen's  Advocate  of  July  27,  1844,  (New 
York),  has  the  following  statement:  "The  Tailors  of  this 
city,  who  are  now  on  a  strike  for  higher  wages,  walked  in 
procession  on  Monday  through  the  principal  streets,  accom- 
panied by  two  bands  of  music.  It  is  computed  that  there 
were  about  two  thousand  in  the  procession.  Many  of  the 
Tailors  are  now  looking  for  a  radical  remedy  for  their 
grievances,  as  well  as  to  the  temporary  one  of  strikes.  Their 
General  Convention  takes  place  on  the  2$th  inst.,  and  we 
trust  the  measure  of  the  National  Reform  Association  will 
not  escape  their  notice."78  No  record,  however,  is  found 
showing  what  came  of  this  movement. 

During  the  year  1847  strikes  were  frequent  on  account 
of  the  high  price  of  provisions.  In  June  of  this  year  the 
tailors  of  Philadelphia  were  again  out,  demanding  an  ad- 
vance in  prices.  The  strike  lasted  until  October,  when  the 
men  were  successful.79  In  1849  there  was  another  strike  in 
Boston.  At  this  time  it  was  stated  that  wages  had  been 
reduced  57  per  cent  during  the  previous  five  years,  the  situa- 
tion being  due  largely  to  the  employment  of  women  on  many 

shops  purchase  part  of  their  goods  from  other  towns,  and  get  the 
rest  made  by  persons  out  of  employment,  much  below  the  regular  rates 
of  wages,  and  sell  at  very  low  prices;  consequently  regular,  good  work- 
men are  confined  to  bespoken  articles  for  first-rate  master  tailors ; 
hence  their  employment  is  very  precarious.  They  are  often  out  of  work, 
and  are  glad  to  get  employment  occasionally,  at  reduced  rates,  from 
ready-made  clothes  shops,  which  reduces  wages  eventually  in  spite  of 
all  they  can  do  to  prevent  it."  (From  John  Finch,  "Notes  of  Travel 
in  the  U.  S."  Quoted  in  Doc.  Hist.,  V.  7,  pp.  65-66). 

The  same  writer  states  in  another  place  that  tailors  in  1843  gen- 
erally get  good  wages,  but  are  not  usually  well  employed.  Their  wages 
are  about  6s.  a  day.  (Doc.  Hist.,  V.  7,  p.  48). 

77U.   S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  3rd  Ann.  Rept,  p.  1038. 

7«Doc.  Hist.,  V.  8,  p.  221. 

79U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  3rd  Ann.  Rept.,  p.   1039. 


52  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

parts  of  the  work  hitherto  performed  by  men.80  In  the 
same  year  the  Boston  Tailors'  Union,  discouraged  by  the 
difficulty  of  making  gains  through  strikes,  entered  upon  a 
scheme  for  a  cooperative  merchant  tailoring  establishment. 
An  association  for  this  purpose  was  formed  with  seventy 
members  and  a  capital  of  $700.  The  enterprise  is  said  to 
have  been  a  success  for  several  months,  but  the  ultimate  out- 
come is  not  noted.81 

In  1851  the  movement  for  cooperation  had  largely  de- 
clined, and  in  1853,  forced  by  a  rise  in  prices  and  the  cost 
of  living,  the  workingmen  began  to  adopt  policies  more  simi- 
lar to  the  present  ones.82  "The  decade  of  the  fifties  wit- 
nessed the  organization  of  several  national  trade  unions  and 
of  an  indefinite  number  of  local  unions.  For  example,  the 
cigar  makers  of  Cincinnati  are  reported  to  have  organized 
a  local  in  1843;  another  was  formed  in  Baltimore  in  1851. 
In  succeeding  years,  additional  locals  were  formed  in  New 
York  and  other  cities.  In  1850  a  national  union  of  printers 
was  organized.  None  had  existed  since  the  ephemeral  nat- 
ional organization  of  the  thirties  disappeared  amid  the  chaos 
of  the  panic  of  1837.  The  National  Trade  Association  of 
Hat  Finishers  was  organized  in  1854.  The  iron  molders  and 
the  machinists  and  blacksmiths  formed  national  unions  in 
1859,  and  the  ship  carpenters  and  the  coal  miners  in  1861. 
The  period  of  the  fifties  had  been  marked  by  little  labor  legis- 
lation except  of  the  humanitarian  type."83 

Of  the  tailors  during  this  decade  we  find  but  little  men- 
tion.    In  1850  the  German  tailors  of  New  York  City  formed 

soSumner,   Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  9,  p.   121. 


.   Hist.,   V.  8,   pp.   279-285.     Quoted   from  "The   Spirit  of   the 
Age,"   Sept.  29,   1849,  p.   187. 

82Commons,  Doc.   Hist.,  V.  7,  Int.,  p.  43. 

83Carlton,   History   and   Problems  of   Organized   Labor,   p.   57. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  53 

an  organization,84  and  in  1853  we  find  an  association  known 
as  the  Tailors'  Protective  Society,  which  is  probably  the  same 
as  that  organized  in  1850,  participating  with  other  trades  in 
forming  a  general  Trades'  Union  for  New  York  City.85 
There  is  little  doubt  that  during  this  period  tailors'  societies 
continued  to  be  formed  in  various  localities,  although  the 
rise  of  the  ready  made  industry  and  the  employment  of 
women  would  tend  to  handicap  their  progress. 

3.    1860-1887.     PERIOD  o?  NATION AI,  ORGANIZATION. 
General  Tendencies. 

We  have  already  seen  that  there  was  some  tendency 
toward  national  organization  in  the  labor  movement  during 
the  three  decades  following  1830.  This  tendency,  however, 
did  not  become  most  prominent  until  1860.  The  rapid  rise 
of  prices  during  the  Civil  War  had  a  strong  influence  upon 
trade  union  activity,  while  the  enormous  demands  of  the 
government  brought  about  what  was  virtually  a  second  in- 
dustrial revolution.  Especially  prominent  was  the  rise  of  the 
iron,  petroleum,  and  textile  industries.  The  effect  upon  la- 
bor was  soon  manifested.  "By  1866  from  thirty  to  forty 
national  and  international  trade  unions  and  amalgamated  socie- 
ties were  in  evidence,  some  of  them  numbering  tens  of 
thousands  of  men."86  City  central  bodies  were  also  numer- 
ous; it  is  stated  by  Carlton  that  there  were  at  least  thirty 
before  the  close  of  the  year  i865-87  To  this  period  belongs 
also  the  National  Labor  Union  of  1866,  which  may  be  re- 
garded in  many  ways  as  the  forerunner  of  the  present  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Labor. 

S4Doc.  Hist.,  V.  8,  pp.  308-309.  Article  in  N.  Y.  Daily  Tribune, 
Aug.  21,  1850. 

85Doc.  Hist,  V.  8,  p.  342.  Article  in  N.  Y.  Daily  Tribune,  Sept. 
28,  1853- 

86 Adams  and   Sumner,  Labor   Problems,  p.  219. 

STHistory  and   Problems  of  Organized  Labor,  p.  58. 


54  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Only  a  few  brief  references  to  the  tailors  are  found  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  period.  In  New  York  an  important  Society 
was  organized  in  1862,  known  as  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
Protective  and  Benevolent  Union.88  Mention  of  this  society 
is  found  at  several  later  dates,  and  it  seems  to  have  had  a 
practically  continuous  existence  from  that  time  down  to  the 
present  date.89  The  New  York  tailors  in  1860  were  prin- 
cipally Germans  and  Irish,  and  both  nationalities  participated 
in  forming  the  new  union,90  whch  appears  eventually  to  have 
absorbed  the  earlier  German  union  of  1850.  The  tailors 
were  also  organizing  in  the  middle  and  far  west.  In  1863 
they  were  striking  in  California  against  extra  fancy  work 
on  coats,91  and  in  1864  a  Tailors'  Society  in  St.  Louis  was 
protesting  against  the  employment  of  women.92  With  this 
widespread  extension  of  activity,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
the  tailors  yielding  shortly  to  the  spirit  for  national  organiza- 
tion. 


First  National  Union  of  Tailors, 

The  various  isolated  unions  in  the  tailoring  trade,  real- 


the  report  of  the  New  York  Union  to  the  1885  Convention 
of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  National  Union  of  the  United  States,  ap- 
pears the  following  quotation:  "The  Journeymen  Tailors'  Protective 
and  Benevolent  Union  of  New  York  will  celebrate  the  25th  anniver- 
sary of  the  founding  of  this  union  in  1887."  (Constitution  and  By- 
Laws,  also  Proceedings,  of  the  3rd  Annual  Convention,  p.  9).  This 
is  our  authority  for  setting  the  date  of  this  union  at  1862. 

89The  secretary  of  the  present  union  in  New  York  states  that  their 
union  was  organized  in  1866. 

90TAILOR,    Oct.,   1906,  p.   14;    editorial   on  "Frederick  Werner." 

9iU.   S.   Bureau  of  Labor,  3rd  Annual  Kept.,  p.   1047. 

92Sumner,   Sen.   Doc.  645,  V.  9,  p.  121. 

93  The  material  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  tailors  from  1865 
to  1885  has  been  derived  mainly  from  a  sketch  embodied  by  Mr.  Fred- 
erick Werner  in  his  report  as  Treasurer  to  the  1893  Convention  of 
the  J[.  T.  U.  of  A.  (Tailor,  Aug.,  1893,  p.  3).  Mr.  Werner  was  a 
prominent  German  tailor  of  New  York  City,  was  instrumental  in  form- 
ing the  New  York  union  of  1862,  and  was  one  of  the  leaders  through- 
out the  history  of  the  subsequent  national  movement.  A  few  supple- 
mentary facts  have  been  added  by  Mr.  John  B.  Lennon,  who  was  an 
officer  and  delegate  at  every  tailors'  convention  after  1883.  Other  ref- 
erences are  as  cited. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  55 

izing  the  weakness  that  lies  in  separation,  entered  upon  a 
movement  for  national  federation,  and  in  August,  1865,  a 
Convention  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  at  which  the  following 
cities  were  represented:  New  York,  New  York;  Philadel- 
phia, Pennsylvania ;  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts; Troy,  New  York;  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  and  Louisville, 
Kentucky.  The  organization  formed  at  this  Convention  was 
entitled  "The  Journeymen  Tailors'  National  Trades  Union." 
It  is  implied  in  the  account  which  we  follow  that  subsequent 
yearly  conventions  were  held  regularly.  "Strong  efforts 
were  made  to  organize  local  unions,  not  only  in  cities,  but 
in  small  towns,  but  not  with  the  success  expected.  However, 
the  large  cities  followed  our  banner."94  There  is  some  evi- 
dence that  in  1871  a  reorganization  was  necessary,  as  the 
Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission  states  that  a  national 
union  of  tailors  was  formed  at  that  date,  evidently  over- 
looking the  earlier  organization.95  The  first  union  must 
have  lasted  at  least  until  1867,  as  in  that  year  they  were  rep- 
resented at  the  Chicago  Congress  of  the  National  Labor 
Union.90  There  were  also  tailors'  delegates  at  the  1868 
and  1869  Congresses,  but  these  were  from  the  local  unions 
in  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  did  not  represent  the  Nat- 
ional.97 

In  February,  1875,  there  was  a  tailors'  strike  in  Boston, 
for  the  object  of  improving  the  scale  of  prices,  but  the  strike 
failed  to  accomplish  anything  for  the  workmen,  others  be- 
ing engaged  in  their  places.98 

94Report  of   Frederick  Werner,   1893. 

95Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission,  V.   17,  p.  64. 

96  Seven  successive  annual  conventions  or  Congresses  of  the  Nat- 
ional Labor  Union  were  held,  beginning  in  1866  and  ending  in  1872. 
For  reference  to  tailors'  delegates  at  the  Chicago  Congress,  see  Doc. 
HJist.,  V.  9,  p.  170. 

97i868  Congress,  Doc.  Hist.,  V.  9,  p.  196.  1869  Congress,  ibid.,  p. 
229. 

9SMass.   Bureau  of  Labor,   nth  Ann.  Kept,   1880,   p.  39. 


56  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  vicissitudes  of  the  Tailors' 
National  Union,  it  was  certainly  in  existence  in  1875,  for 
we  have  the  definite  record  of  its  Convention  in  St.  Louis 
in  August  of  this  year."  Of  thirty-nine  local  unions  affili- 
ated with  the  National,  twenty-three  were  represented,  with 
thirty  delegates.  The  Treasurer's  books  showed  a  balance  of 
$2,924.23,  but  to  the  great  chagrin  of  the  delegates  the  Treas- 
urer himself  failed  to  appear;  in  fact,  in  the  language  of 
Mr.  Werner,  "Treasurer  and  money  were  never  seen  again." 
It  was  necessary  to  borrow  money  from  the  New  York  and 
St.  Louis  Locals,  largely  on  the  guarantee  of  Mr.  Werner 
himself,  in  order  that  the  delegates  might  return  to  their 
homes. 

The  embezzlement  of  the  funds  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Union ;  at  the  same  time  they  managed  to  weather  the  storm 
for  another  year,  and  at  the  Convention  of  1876  the  new 
Treasurer  reported  all  debts  paid  and  a  balance  on  hand  of 
$169.64.  Of  thirty-seven  local  unions,  thirteen  were  repre- 
sented, with  fifteen  delegates.  Officers  were  elected,  and  Chi- 
cago fixed  upon  for  the  next  Convention.  This  meeting, 
however,  never  took  place,  as  the  National  Union  broke  up 
during  the  following  year,  due  no  doubt  to  the  previous  finan- 
cial trouble. 

A  period  now  ensued  of  about  seven  years,  including  a 
part  of  1883,  during  which  there  was  no  national  union  in 
the  tailoring  trade.  The  locals,  however,  continued  their 
activity.  In  1879  there  was  a  strike  in  one  shop  in  Boston, 
which  resulted  after  about  three  months  in  the  defeat  of  the 
men.100  Beginning  with  1881  we  have  an  account  of  strikes 
by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  which,  al- 
though it  cannot  be  regarded  as  exhaustive,  throws  consid- 

99Report  of  Frederick  Werner,  1893.  Since  writing  the  above  evi- 
dence has  reached  the  writer  that  regular  conventions  were  also  held 
in  1873  and  1874. 

100 Mass.   Bureau   of   Labor,   nth   Ann.   Kept.,   1880,  p.   52. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  57 

erable  light  upon  what  was  going  on  in  the  tailoring  trade.101 
The  following  table  shows  strikes  reported  in  this  trade  from 
1881  to  1883: 

STRIKES  IN  THE  TAILORING  TRADE,   1881-1883. 

Date         Locality      Number         Cause  Result 

involved. 

Mch.  21,  1 88 1  Cincinnati  25  For  increase.  Comprom'ed 

Mch.  27,   1 88 1   Pittsburgh         121   For  increase.  Won. 

Apr.    1 6,  1 88 1  New  York       no  For  increase.  Won. 

Oct.    19,  1 88 1  Dubuque  66  For  increase.   Compro'ed. 

Aug.  12,  1882  Wash.,  D.  C.  3  For  union  scale.  Won. 
Mch.  12,  1883  Denver  15  Against  reduction  Lost. 

Mch.   17,  1883  Des    Moines      92  For  increase.  Won. 

Mch.  20,  1883  Freeport,   111.     41  For  increase  Won. 

Apr.      i,  1883,   Philadelphia      10  For  increase  Lost. 

Apr.    24,  1883  Boston  12  Against  reduction      Lost. 

It  is  reported  by  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  that  all  the 
above  strikes  were  called  by  labor 'organizations.  'The  table 
is  therefore  of  especial  value  as  indicating  the  presence  of 
local  unions,  in  certain  cities  not  hitherto  noted. 

Before  taking  up  the  history  of  the  present  National 
Union,  it  is  considered  of  interest  to  introduce  the  following 
table,  showing  all  local  unions  existing  prior  to  the  National 
Convention  of  1883,  so  far  as  it  has  been  possible  to  trace 
them.  A  city  is  not  listed  unless  there  is  definite  evidence 
of  a  tailors'  society.  The  mere  fact  of  a  strike  is  not  taken 
as  prima  facie  evidence  of  organization.102  The  dates  given 
are  the  earliest  dates  furnished  by  our  references  at  which 

10  iU.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  3rd  Ann.  Rept.,  1887,  on  "Strikes  and 
Lockouts,  1881-1886." 

i02it  is  certain  that  the  list  is  incomplete.  Additional  informa- 
tion would  be  appreciated  by  the  writer  and  publishers,  in  case  such 
information  is  in  the  possession  of  any  of  the  readers. 


58 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


unions  existed  in  the  cities  in  question.  It  is  probable  that 
in  several  instances  the  unions  existed  earlier  than  the  dates 
named.  Not  all  unions  in  the  list  were  in  existence  im- 
mediately prior  to  1883,  some  having  been  organized  and 
disbanded  again  before  that  date. 

LIST  OF  LOCAL  UNIONS  EXISTING  P^IOR  TO  THE  NATIONAL 
CONVENTION  OF  AUGUST,  1883. 


Locality 
Baltimore,  Md. 
Philadelphia,  Pa 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
Boston,  Mass. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Troy,  N.  Y. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Dubuque,  Iowa 
Chicago,  111. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Washington,  D.  C. 


Worcester,  Mass. 
Louisville,  Ky. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Denver,  Colo. 
Bloomington,  111. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Hartford,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 


Date  Authority. 

1795   McMaster,  V.  3,  p.  511. 
1806   Colo.  Bur.  of  Labor,  ist  Bien- 
nial Report,  p.  336. 
1806   Carlton,  p.  17. 
1806    Tailor,  Nov.,  1906,  p.  17. 
1824   Doc.  Hist.,  V.  4,  pp.  93-95- 
1829   Officers  present  union. 
1843   Doc.  Hist.,  V.  8,  p.  220. 
1843    Doc.  Hist,  V.  7,  pp.  65-66. 

1859  Officers  present  union. 

1860  Officers  present  union. 

1864  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  9,  p.  121. 

1865  Report   of    Frederick    Werner, 


In  Tailor,  Aug.,   1893,  p.   3. 

1865  Tailor,  Aug.,  1893,  p.  3. 

1865  Tailor,  Aug.,  1893,  p.  3. 

1869  Doc.  Hist.,  V.  9,  p.  229. 

1870  Charter  members. 

1873  MS,  Charter 

1873  Officers  present  union. 

1873  Proceedings   1873   Convention. 

Ct  »  "  " 

1873 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


59 


Locality.  Date. 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.  1873 

Elmira,  N.  Y.  1873 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  1873 

Saratoga,  N.  Y.  1873 

Nashville,  Tenn.  1873 

Memphis,  Tenn.  1873 

Norfolk,  Va.  1873 

Richmond,  Va.  1873 

Meadville,  Pa.  1873 

Harrisburg,  Pa.  1873 

Springfield,  111.  1873 

Savannah,  Ga.  J873 

Monmouth,   111.  1873 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.  1873 

Leavenworth,  Kan.  1873 

Williamsport,  Pa.  1874 

San  Francisco,  Cal.  1875 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  1875 

Burlington,  la.  1875 

Council  Bluffs,  la.  1875 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  1875 

Omaha,  Neb.  1875 

St.   Paul,  Minn.  1875 

Utica,  N.  Y.  1875 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  1876 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  1876 

St.  Catherine's  Ont.  1878 

Champaign-Urb'a,  111.  1881 

Portage,  Wis.  1882 

Winnipeg,  Man.  1882 

Freeport,  111.     March  1883 

Des  Moines,  la.  March  1883 


Authority. 
Proceedings  1873  Convention. 


Proceedings   1874  Convention. 
Proceedings   1873  Convention. 


Proceedings  1874  Convention. 
Proceedings  1874  Convention. 
Officers  present  union. 

Proceedings   1875  Convention. 


Proceedings  1876 

J5  » 

Officers  present  union. 


U.  S.  Bur.  of  Labor,  3rd  Ann. 
Report,  p.  1 20. 
Ibid.,  p.  188. 


60  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Second  National  Union  of  Tailors,  1883. 

In  June,  1883,  the  Philadelphia  union  issued  a  call  for  a 
convention,  to  meet  in  that  city  on  the  second  Monday  in 
August,  1883.  Five  local  unions  responded,  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  Troy,  Baltimore,  and  Pittsburgh.  Officers  were 
elected  and  constitution  and  by-laws  adopted.103  The  new 
organization  was  entitled  "The  Journeymen  Tailors'  National 
Union  of  the  United  States."104  John  Mustadt  of  New  York 
was  chosen  President;  Charles  Sharpe  of  Philadelphia,  Sec- 
retary; and  Barny  O'Donnell,  of  Philadelphia,  Treasurer. 

Convention  of  1884. 

During  the  year  following  the  1883  convention,  strikes 
are  reported  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor  in 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco,  and  in 
all  of  these  cities  the  journeymen  obtained  some  advan- 
tages.105 During  the  year  sixteen  locals  were  granted  char- 
ters.106 When  the  second  convention  met  in  Chicago,  August 
n,  1884,  eleven  of  these  unions  were  represented,  with  fif- 
teen delegates.  "The  Executive  Board  was  authorized  to  is- 
sue an  appeal  to  all  tailors  of  the  United  States  to  organize, 
also  to  all  the  Locals  which  belonged  to  the  former  union  to 
join  the  ranks  again."107  The  officers  elected  for  the  ensu- 
es Copy  of  this  constitution  has  not  as  yet  been  secured. 

io4This  union  has  existed  continuously  from  1883  until  the  pres- 
ent date.  In  1889  the  name  was  changed  to  read,  "Journeymen  Tailors* 
Union  of  America,"  and  since  that  date  there  has  been  no  change  in 
the  title. 

10  5U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  3rd  Ann.  Kept  See  table  for  full  list 
of  strikes,  1884-1886. 

106 By  consulting  the  Proceedings  of  the  1884  Convention,  we  have 
been  enabled  to  ascertain  the  names  of  these  unions,  as  follows;  New- 
York,  New  York;  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania;  New  Haven,  Connecti- 
cut; Baltimore,  Maryland;  Worcester,  Massachusetts;  Chicago,  Illi- 
nois ;  Peoria,  Illinois ;  Champaign,  Illinois ;  Springfield,  Illinois ;  St. 
Louis,  Missouri;  Kansas  City,  Missouri;  Denver,  Colorado;  Cheyenne, 
Wyoming;  Pittsburg,  Pa.;  Harrisburg,  Pa.;  Washington,  D.  C. 

of  Frederick  Werner,   1893. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


61 


ing     year    were:     President,   John    B.    Lennon;    Secretary, 
Joseph  Wilkenson;    Treasurer,  Frederick  Werner. 


STRIKES  IN  THE  TAILORING  TRADE,  1884-1886. 

Number 
Date  Locality  Involved        Cause  Result 


Mch.   1 8  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Apr.      5  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Apr.    15  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
May      6  New  York,  N.  Y. 
May  29  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Feb.  15  Louisville,  Ky. 

Mch.  27  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Apr.  i  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Apr.  i  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Apr.      2  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
July      6  Washington,  D.  C. 

Aug.   1 8  Leavenworth,  Kas. 
Oct.      8  Champaign- 
Urbana,  111. 
Oct.      8  Butte,  Mont. 
Dec.    31   Baltimore,  Md. 

1886. 

Mch.  1 6  Danville,  Va. 

Mch.  20  Boston,  Mass. 
Apr.      i   Chicago,  111. 
Apr.      6  Springfield,  111. 

Apr.  14  Duluth,  Minn. 

Apr.  19  Milwaukee,   Wis. 


39  For  increase.  Won. 

1 8  Against  reduction.  Won. 
17  For  increase.  Won. 
76  Against  reduction.  Compr. 
13  Against  additional  Won. 

helpers. 

10  Against   reduction..      Lost. 

9  Against  convict  labor.  Won 

33  Against  reduction.  Won. 

91  Readjustment  of  Won. 

scale. 

24  Sympathetic  strike.      Lost. 

13  Against  3  non-  Lost. 

unionists. 

69  For  increase.  Won. 

20  Against   "extras."  Won. 

8  For  increase.  Lost. 

22  For  increase.  Lost. 

30  Pay  for  overtime.  Compr. 

600  For  increase.  Lost. 

55  For  increase.  Won. 

47  Against  "extras."  Lost. 

19  For  increase.  Lost. 
315  For  increase.  Compr. 


62  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Number 
Date  Locality  Involved  Cause  Result 

May    19  Pittsburgh,  Pa.        403  For  increase.  Lost. 

Sept.  20  Chicago,  111.  25  For  increase.  Won. 

Sept.  25  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  18  For  increase.  Compr. 

Nov.  20  Grand  Rapids,  7  For  increase.  Lost. 

Mich. 
NOTES. 

1.  Information  in  this  table  is  taken  from  the  3rd  Annual  Report 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor.     Only  one  change  has  been  made 
in   the  data   as   there  reported.     The   Commissioner   of   Labor   reported 
the  Boston,   1886,  strike  as  won,  but  we  find  from  the  Tailors'  Journal 
that  this  was  a  mistake,  and  that  the  strike  was  in  reality  lost.    Tailor, 
November,  1906,  pp.   17-18.     We  have  made  the  change  accordingly. 

2.  This  table  is  continuous  with  that  given  in  the  text  of  Chapter 
3,  showing  strikes  from  1881  to  1883.    The  list  was  divided  so  as  to  show 
strikes  before  and  after  the  National  Union  of   1883   was  organized. 

3.  The  Commissioner  reports  that  all  these  strikes  were  called  by 
labor  organizations  except  Duluth  and  Ithaca,  both  1886. 

4.  The  date  given  in  each  case  is  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  the 
strike. 

5.  Strikes    which    succeeded    partially 4  are     marked    "Compr."     for 
"Compromised." 


Convention  of  1885. 


108 


This  convention  met  in  Baltimore,  August  10,  1885. 
Twenty-three  unions  were  reported  as  being  in  good  stand- 
ing, with  an  aggregate  membership  of  2481.  Five  of  these 
locals  were  represented  at  the  convention,  as  follows:  Bal- 
timore, Philadelphia,  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Denver. 
New  York  sent  three  delegates,  and  the  others  one  each,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  seven. 

The  President  reported  that  the  year  just  passed  had  been 
a  severe  strain  upon  the  National,  in  view  of  the  serious  de- 
pression in  the  trade.  He  stated,  however,  that  there  had 
been  a  gain  in  strength.  It  was  suggested  that  in  view  of 


account  of  this  convention  is  taken  from  the  "Constitution 
and  By-Laws,  also  Proceedings,  of  the  3rd  Annual  Convention  of  the 
Journeymen  Tailors'  National  Union  of  the  United  States."  (N.  Y., 
1885).  This  constituion  and  by-laws  is  found  in  the  appendix  to  this 
chapter.  Table  of  local  unions,  1885,  is  given  herewith. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  63 

the  small  number  of  delegates,  great  care  would  be  required 
in  order  to  legislate  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  locals  not 
represented.  The  Secretary  complained  likewise  of  indus- 
trial conditions,  stating  that  organization  had  been  difficult, 
and  that  it  had  been  found  necessary  to  resist  threatened  re- 
ductions in  wages.  Strikes  for  this  purpose  had  taken  place 
in  Baltimore,  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and  while  they 
had  not  been  completely  successful,  a  general  reduction  had 
been  prevented  in  these  cities.  The  Secretary  took  occasion 
to  commend  the  "uniform,  prompt  and  generous  manner"  in 
which  the  local  unions  had  responded  to  appeals  for  help 
from  the  "strike  cities."  This  is  significant  as  indicating  that 
the  National  Union  had  already  developed  a  considerable 
spirit  of  solidarity.  With  reference  to  organizing  work,  the 
Secretary  reported  that  seven  local  unions  had  joined  since 
the  previous  convention,  and  six  more  with  whom  he  had 
been  in  correspondence  indicated  their  intention  of  joining. 
Circular  matter  for  local  unions  had  been  sent  out  through  a 
periodical  known  as  "Swinton's  Magazine,"  which  had  been 
adopted  as  the  official  organ  of  the  National  Union. 

LIST  OF  LOCAL  UNIONS  AFFILIATED  WITH  THE  NATIONAL. 

AUGUST,  1885. 

Locality.  Membership. 

New  York,  N.  Y.  1260 

Chicago,  111.  300 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  (United)  116 

Baltimore,  Md.  102 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  80 

Denver,  Colo.  72 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  (English)  64 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  (German)  58 

Peoria,  111.  54 


64  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Locality 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
Worcester,  Mass. 
Bloomington,  111. 
Springfield,  111. 
Meadville,  Pa. 
Milwaukee,   Wis. 
Sedalia,  Mo. 
Janesville,  Wis. 
Leavenworth,  Kas. 
Rock  Island-Davenport. 
Cheyenne,  Wyo. 
Champaign-Urbana,   111. 

Total  2481 

NOTE:  The  above  list  is  taken  from  the  Proceedings  of  the  1885 
Convention,  and  represents  the  unions  which  were  reported  to  that 
Convention  as  being  in  good  standing. 

In  the  matter  of  strikes,  the  officers,  as  well  as  several 
unions  who  reported  by  letter  instead  of  by  delegates,  agreed 
that  strong  efforts  must  be  made  to  settle  controversies  with- 
out strike,  and  to  avoid  strikes  during  the  dull  seasons,  es- 
pecially January,  February,  July  and  August.  This  recom- 
mendation was  eventually  embodied  in  a  new  by-law.109 
Unions  in  Urbana,  Illinois,  and  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  had 
been  refused  support  in  demanding  an  advance,  the  unions 
being  advised  that  the  efforts  of  the  National  must  for  the 
time  being  be  confined  to  resisting  reductions.  Two  other 
unions,  Chicago  and  Denver,  had  been  obliged  to  accept  slight 
reductions,  this  policy  appearing  better  than  a  strike,  in  view 
of  the  business  depression.  Actual  strikes  in  cities  afiilated 

i09By-laws  of  1885,  Art.  13.     See  appendix. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  65 

with  the  National  had  taken  place  in  Baltimore,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Kansas  City,  and  there  had  been  a  lockout 
of  twenty  men  in  Denver.  In  addition,  strikes  were  reported 
from  the  following  cities  containing  local  unions  not  yet  af- 
filiated: San  Francisco,  Boston,  Atlanta,  Nashville,  Des- 
Moines,  Louisville,  and  Washington,  D.  C.110  As  a  rule  the 
national  secretary  had  written  these  unions,  inviting  them  to 
join,  but  they  had  not  as  yet  taken  action.  Similar  cor- 
respondence had  been  held  with  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
Warren,  Pennsylvania,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  Council 
Bluffs,  Iowa,  Ottawa,  Kansas,  and  Los  Angeles,  California. 
In  each  of  these  cities  unions  existed,  which  it  was  hoped  to 
bring  into  the  National ;  in  fact,  two  of  them — New  Orleans 
and  Warren — became  members  between  the  adjournment  of 
the  convention  and  the  publication  of  the  Proceedings. 

During  the  preceding  term  the  strike  benefit  had  been 
$6.00  a  week;  this  the  1885  convention  reduced  to  $4.00, 
fearing  a  depletion  of  the  funds.  It  was  reported  that  dur- 
ing the  year  since  the  1884  convention  strike  benefit  had  been 
paid  to  the  sum  of  $2,924.45,  and  claims  allowed  while  the 
convention  was  in  session  brought  the  sum  total  up  to 
$3,286.45.  The  seriousness  of  this  expense  will  be  realized 
when  it  is  noted  that  the  entire  income  of  the  union  for  the 
term  was  only  $3,604.14.  In  fact,  at  the  close  of  the  conven- 
tion, after  allowing  for  the  expenses  of  the  delegates,  there 
was  a  balance  of  only  $37.45  in  the  Treasurer's  hands.111 

A  matter  of  some  interest  in  connection  with  this  conven- 

110  See  table  for  strikes  in  1885,  as  reported  by  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Labor. 

in  The  balance  sheet  at  the  close  of  the  Convention,  August  15, 
1885,  was  as  follows: 

Income,  Aug.  15,  1884  to  Aug.   15,  1885 $3,604.14 

Expense,  Aug.  15,  1884  to  Aug.  15,  1885 3,566.69 

Balance  in  hands  of  Treasurer,  Aug.   15,   1885 $     37-45 

From  report  of  the  Treasurer,  1885   Proceedings. 


66  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

tion  is  the  fact  that  there  was  in  existence  at  the  same  time 
a  dual  organization  known  as  the  "Tailors'  Progressive  Un- 
ion of  America."  This  organization  sent  a  letter  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Tailors'  National  Union,  seeking  support  for 
an  eight-hour  movement,  and  criticizing  the  methods  of  the 
New  York  union  of  the  Tailors'  National.  The  Convention 
directed  the  Secretary  to  reply  that  the  Convention  could  not 
interfere  between  local  unions  in  any  city,  but  that  the  branch 
of  the  "Progressives"  in  New  York  would  be  permitted  to 
affiliate  with  the  National  if  they  liked.  This  Progressive 
Union  seems  to  have  been  a  socialistic  organization,  which  at 
no  time  had  a  large  membership,  and  it  is  probable  that  it 
was  gradually  absorbed  by  the  larger  society,  although  we 
find  it  referred  to  as  late  as  iSSg.112 

The  Convention  of  1885  concluded  its  work  with  a  series 
of  interesting  resolutions,  113  including  a  decision  to  make  the 

H2In  the  report  of  the  Tailors'  delegate  to  the  A.   F.  of  L.   Con 
vention  of   1887,  Tailor,  Jan.,   1888,   p.   5,   appears  the   following: 

"I  appeared  before  the  Committee  on  Credentials  to  inquire  into 
the  nature  of  the  Progressive  Tailors'  Union The  Pro- 
gressive Tailors'  Union,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn  about  it, 
is  a  poor  struggling  union  with  very  good  objects,  but  wholly  impracti- 
cable methods.  They  have  but  a  few  local  unions,  and  have  not  a 
scale  of  prices  established  in  any  of  them.  They  are  composed  mostly 
of  tailors  working  at  ready  made  clothing.  It  is  my  opinion  that  such 
of  them  as  work  on  custom  made  garments  ought  to  join  our  national 
union,  and  that  we  in  return  should  give  them  every  encouragement 
and  support  to  organize  the  manufacturing  tailors."  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  United  Garment  Workers'  Union  was  not  organized  until 
1891,  and  previous  to  that  date  it  was  a  serious  problem  with  the  custom 
tailors  as  to  what  should  be  done  with  the  ready-made  workers,  or 
"shop  tailors,"  as  they  were  then  called.  (See  Sen.  Doc.  645,  V.  10, 
p.  160;  also  Tailor,  Sept.,  1889,  P-  i>  Report  of  the  General  Secretary 
to  the  Columbus  Convention).  It  appears  that  the  "Progressive  Union" 
was  represented  at  the  Convention  of  the  A.  F.  of  L.  in  1889,  as  well 
as  in  1887.  At  the  1887  convention,  as  suggested  by  the  above  ex- 
tract, the  credentials  of  its  delegates  were  disputed,  but  the  delegates 
were  finally  seated.  (Proceedings  of  A.  F.  of  L.  Convention,  1887, 
p.  8).  In  1888  the  Progressive  Union  was  listed  as  one  of  the  National 
Unions  of  the  American  Federation,  although  it  had  no  delegate  at 
this  convention.  (Proceedings,  1888,  pp.  34-36).  This  union  was  granted 
permission  to  use  its  label  on  ready-made  clothing,  but  not  on  custom- 
made.  (Proceedings,  1887,  p.  28).  In  1889  the  Progressive  Union 
claimed  to  have  eleven  branches.  (Proceedings,  1889,  p.  8). 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  67 

convention  biennial  instead  of  annual,  and  elected  the  follow- 
ing officers  for  the  ensuing  term : 

President,  Charles  H.  Sharpe,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

First  Vice-President,  Frederick  Jensen,  New  York,  New 
York. 

Second  Vice-President,  Henry  Becker,  Baltimore,  Mary- 
land. 

Third  Vice-President,  John  B.  Lennon,  Denver,  Colorado. 

Fourth  Vice-President,  James  W.  Smith,  Springfield, 
Illinois.114 

Secretary,  Joseph  Wilkenson,  New  York,  New  York. 

Treasurer,  Frederick  Werner,  New  York,  New  York. 

Auditors,  John  Casey,  William  Brodil. 

The  Tailors  and-  the  Knights  of  Labor. 

In  accord  with  the  resolutions  of  1885,  there  was  no  an- 
nual convention  of  the  Tailors'  National  Union  in  1886,  the 
next  meeting  being  set  for  1887.  Before,  however,  taking 
up  the  1887  convention,  it  is  our  desire  to  discuss  briefly  the 
relation  of  the  tailors  to  the  Knights  of  Labor.  It  will  be 
recalled  that  this  organization  started  with  an  organization  of 
garment  cutters  in  Philadelphia  in  1869.  By  1886  it  had 
reached  its  height,  and  shortly  after  began  to  decline,  as  a 
result  largely  of  the  rise  of  craft  unionism  and  of  the  Ameri- 
can Federation  of  Labor. 

It  is  not  possible  to  ascertain  from  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Knights  whether  or  not  any  of  the  delegates  to  their  con- 
ventions were  of  the  tailoring  trade,  inasmuch  as  all  delegates 
are  designated  according  to  "local  assemblies,"  most  of  which 
were  mixed.  In  some  issues,  however,  of  the  Journal  of 

11 3  See  Appendix  to  this  chapter. 

ii^This  member  was  of  considerable  prominence  in  the  labor  move- 
ment. In  1884  he  represented  the  National  Tailors'  Union  at  the  Con- 
vention of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  and  in  1886,  while  serv- 
ing in  a  similar  capacity,  was  elected  President  of  the  Convention. 
(Proceedings  of  the  Conventions  of  the  A.  F.  of  L..  1884  and  1886). 


68  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

United  Labor,  the  official  organ  of  the  Knights,  are  found 
monthly  summaries  of  newly  organized  assemblies,  and  here 
we  have  found  mention  of  several  assemblies  of  tailors, 
though  not  as  many  as  of  other  crafts.115 

It  seems  probable  that  where  tailors  were  members  of  the 
Knights  of  Labor  they  were  usually  connected  as  individuals 
with  mixed  assemblies,  and  that  the  local  tailors'  societies 
were  affiliating  with  their  own  national  union,  at  least  after 

1883.  In  one  or  two  cases,  however,  considerable  contro- 
versy arose  over  the  matter;    thus  we  find  that  in  1885  the 
Cincinnati  union  of  tailors  had  disbanded  and  gone  over  to 
the  Knights,116  and  in  1887  an  officer  of  the  National  gave 
as  a  reason  for  his  resignation  the  fact  that  there  was  a  dis- 
cord in  his  local  union  over  this  subject.117 

Strikes  in  the  Tailoring  Trade,  August,  1885, to  August,  1887. 

During  this  term  there  were  a  number  of  tailors'  strikes.118 
Apparently  the  most  serious  were  those  in  Boston  and  Pitts- 

n5In  running  through  a  broken  file  of  the  Journal  of  United  La- 
bor, containing  thirty-eight  of  the  eighty-four  numbers  between  March, 

1884,  and  May,   1887,  we  find  mention  of   the  following  tailors'   assem- 
blies being  organized: 

Date,.  Assembly  Locality. 

Number. 

May,     1885  3859  Albany,  New  York 

June,    1885  3974  Cleveland,  Ohio 

June,    1885  3980  Springfield,   Ohio 

Jan.,     1886  4868  Lynn,  Massachusetts 

Feb.,     1886  5274  Philadelphia,    Pennsylvania 

Feb.,     1886  5346  Newark,   New  Jersey 

Feb.,     1886  5672  Newark,  New  Jersey 

Mch.,    1886  5892  Boston,    Massachusetts 

The  monthly  summaries  are  discontinued  early  in  1887.  There  is 
no  positive  assurance  that  all  of  the  above  assemblies  were  composed 
of  custom  tailors;  in  the  Journal  they  are  listed  as  "tailors"  or  "tail- 
ors' employees;"  some  garment  workers  may  have  been  included. 

H6 Proceedings  of  the  National  Tailors'  Union.   i88q.  p.   7. 
i  ^Proceedings  of  the  1887  Convention,  Tailor,  Oct.,   1887. 

11 8 See  table  already  given  for  full  list  of  strikes  from  1884  to  1886, 
as  reported  by  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  69 

burgh  in  1886,  involving  respectively  600  and  403  members. 
1886  seems  to  have  been  a  bad  year  for  strikes;  of  ten  re- 
ported by  the  United  States  Commissioner,  five  were  lost,  in- 
cluding the  two  above  mentioned,  and  only  two  were  entirely 
successful.  A  continuation  of  the  depression  complained  of 
in  1885  was  probably  responsible  for  some  of  these  difficul- 
ties.119 With  the  exception  of  these  strikes  we  have  little  rec- 
ord of  the  tailors  until  their  next  convention. 


Convention  of 

This  convention  was  in  many  ways  more  important  than 
any  that  had  previously  taken  place.  The  Proceedings  will 
therefore  be  examined  in  some  detail.120 

The  convention  opened  in  New  York  City,  August  8, 
1887.  It  was  reported  that  there  were  twenty-seven  unions 
in  good  standing,  with  an  aggregate  membership  of  25  12.121 
Of  these  unions  thirteen  were  represented,  with  fifteen 
delegates.  The  unions  represented  were  :  New  York,  Brook- 
lyn, Troy  and  Poughkeepsie,  New  York;  Worcester  and 
Springfield,  Massachusetts;  Providence,  Rhode  Island;  New 
Haven  and  Danbury,  Connecticut;  Baltimore,  Maryland; 
Columbus,  Ohio  ;  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  and  Denver,  Colorado. 

H9An  interesting  account  of  the  Boston  strike  is  found  in  tfre 
Tailor,  Nov.,  1906,  pp.  16-17.  The  article  is  by  Thomas  Sweeney,  a 
well-known  organizer  of  the  Tailors'  Union  : 

"The  most  eventful  thing  in  connection  with  the  life  of  the  union 
in  Boston  is  a  strike  in  1886.  When  that  strike  took  place  the  Boston 
union  was  well  organized;  they  had  between  six  and  seven  hundred 
members  and  had  a  good  treasury.  Believing  themselves  masters  of 
the  situation,  they  decided  to  present  a  uniform  bill  to  all  firms  in  the 
city.  The  Executive  Board  and  a  Committee  having  the  bill  in  charge 
reported  against  presenting  such  a  bill,  but  the  union  'voted  down  the 
report  and  went  ahead  with  the  bill.  Up  to  that  time  there  was  no 
union  of  employers.  They  soon  organized  one  and  resisted  the  demand 
of  the  union.  In  addition  to  the  uniformity  looked  for  by  the  union, 
they  raised  the  price  ten  per  cent."  The  writer  states  further  that  after 
dragging  along  for  several  months  the  strike  was  finally  lost,  and  the 
men  returned  to  work,  leaving  the  union  considerably  weakened. 

120  See  Tailor,  Oct.,  1887. 

12iA  full  list  of  these  unions,  with  the  membership  of  each,  is  given 
on  p.  70. 


70  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

LIST  OF  LOCAL  UNIONS  ANIMATED  WITH  THE  NATIONAL, 

AUGUST,  1887. 

Locality.  Membership. 

New  York,  N.  Y.  1240 

Boston,  Mass.  145 

Baltimore,  Md.  123 

Troy,  N.  Y.  113 

Columbus,  Ohio.  90 

Providence,  R.  I.  80 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  80 

Denver,  Colo.  80 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  55 

Peoria,  111.  55 

Wichita,  Kas.  50 

DesMoines,  Iowa.  41 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  40 

Worcester,  Mass.  37 

Springfield,  Mass.  33 

Bloomington,  111.  33 

Danbury,  Conn.  32 

Butte  City,  Mont.  30 

Leadville,  Colo.  25 

Emporia,  Kas.  23 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  23 

South  Bend,  Ind.  21 

Springfield,  111.  20 

Warren,  Pa.  15 

Champaign-Urbana,  111.  12 

Sedalia,  Mo.  9 

Leavenworth,  Kas.  7 

Total,  27  unions  2512 

NOTE:  The  above  list  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Finance 
Committee  of  the  1887  Convention,  Tailor,  Oct.,  1887,  p.  3-  This  re- 
port indicated  all  local  unions  paying  dues  during  the  term  1885-1887, 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  71 

and  in  making  the  above  list  it  was  necessary  to  eliminate  those  locals 
that  had  lapsed  before  1887.  The  membership  given  above  is  probably 
the  largest  membership  reported  during  the  term,  and  may  be  a  little 
too  large  for  1887;  it  is,  however,  the  only  list  obtainable.  It  should 
be  stated  that  when  the  new  secretary  took  charge  in  1887,  several  of 
these  unions  had  fallen  behind  with  their  dues,  and  were  not  technically 
in  benefit. 

Frederick  Jensen  was  made  chairman  of  the  convention. 
In  his  opening  speech  he  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
strikes  were  failures  and  expensive,  and  intimated  that, the 
money  of  the  organization  would  better  be  used  for  organiz- 
ing purposes.  He  also  rec'ommended  that  an  official  Journal 
be  established. 

Mr.  Samuel  Gompers,  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  was  present  as  a  visitor,  and  spoke  on  "Trade  Union- 
ism." Following  Mr.  Gompers,  Mr.  Charles  H.  Sharpe,  re- 
tiring President  of  the  Tailors'  Union,  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion, stating  as  a  reason  that  there  was  discord  in  his  local 
union  of  Philadelphia  over  the  question  of  affiliating  with  the 
Knights  of  Labor. 

The  Secretary,  Joseph  Wilkenson,  reported  that  wages 
had  been  slightly  increased  since  the  last  convention,  but  that 
systematic  organization  was  necessary.  He  favored  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  secretary  on  full  time,  and  recommended  that 
the  Executive  Board  be  empowered  to  appoint  an  organizer 
from  time  to  time  as  needed.  Like  Mr.  Jensen,  he  believed 
that  an  official  Journal  should  be  started  as  soon  as  possible. 
With  reference  to  strikes,  he  spoke  in  part  as  follows: 

"The  proper  regulation  of  strikes  is  a  question  that  has 
always  perplexed  and  bothered  all  labor  organizations.  Judg- 
ing by'  the  past,  I  can  see  no  way  by  which  they  can  be  en- 
tirely avoided.  The  great  thing  is  to  know  when  and  how  to 
strike  or  to  leave  it  alone.  In  my  opinion  a  strike  should 
never  be  ordered,  no  matter  what  the  cause  may  be,  when  de- 
feat is  sure,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  considerable  portion  of 


72  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

the  men  working  are  not  in  the  union."  This  utterance  is 
significant  as  expressing  in  a  few  words  the  policy  which  has 
been  followed  throughout  the  subsequent  history  of  the  union. 

A  report  was  heard  from  the  delegate  of  the  Tailors'  Un- 
ion to  the  convention  of  the  "American  Federation  of  Organ- 
ized Trade  and  Labor  Unions  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,"  which  had  just  reorganized  under  the  name  of  the 
"American  Federation  of  Labor."  The  delegate  bore  an  in- 
vitation to  the  Tailors  to  join  the  reorganized  body,  and 
this  invitation  was  later  accepted  by  the  convention. 

The  Treasurer's  report  indicated  a  favorable  showing,  as 
follows : 

Total  receipts,  Aug.  15,  1885,  to  Aug.  10,  1887.  •  •  $5*698.99 
Total  expense,  Aug.  15,  1885  to  Aug.  10  1887 2,075.90 

Balance  in  general  fund,  Aug.  10,  1887 $3,623.09 

This  represented  a  gain  in  the  fund  of  $3,585.64  since  the 
previous  convention. 

The  Committee  on  Constitution  brought  in  a  set  of  re- 
vised laws,  which  were  adopted  without  amendment  by  the 
convention.  Some  of  the  changes  made  in  the  old  Constitu- 
tion were  of  minor  consequence;  there  were,  however,  other 
changes  of  the  highest  importance.  ( i )  A  secretary  was  ap- 
pointed on  full  time  at  a  salary  of  $1,000  a  year  for  the  en- 
suing term.  (2)  The  secretary  was  appointed  chief  organ- 
izer, to  direct  extension  work  under  the  authority  of  the 
Executive  Board.  (3)  An  official  Journal  was  established, 
called  THE  TAILOR,  to  be  published  monthly  and  mailed  free 
to  every  member.122  (4)  The  principle  of  the  referendum 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  73 

was  extended  so  that  any  local  union  could  secure  an  ex- 
pression of  opinion  prior  to  the  convention  from  the  whole 
membership  upon  a  proposed  amendment,  such  opinion  to  be 
binding  on  the  convention.  According  to  the  previous  con- 
stitution propositions  must  be  seconded  by  seven  unions  be- 
fore they  could  be  submitted.123  (5)  Provision  was  made 
for  one-half  the  mileage  of  convention  delegates  to  be  paid 
by  the  National  Union.  This  expense  had  formerly  been  met 
entirely  by  the  local  unions. 

The  resolutions  of  1885  were  practically  re-affirmed,  and 
in  addition  the  following  important  resolutions  adopted  :124 

8.  RESOLVED  :     That    we  recommend    to  the    members 
of  the  local  unions  composing  this  body,  when    purchasing 
goods  of  any  description,  goods  made  by  union  men,  particu- 
larly such  as  bear  the  labels  of  national  or  international  trade 
organizations. 

9.  RESOLVED  :     We    believe  it  to  be  for  the  interest  of 
our  trade,  and  do  therefore  recommend,  all  local  unions  to 
establish  employment  bureaus  as  soon  as  possible. 

10.  RESOLVED:     That  all  local  unions  are  hereby  most 
earnestly  urged  to  observe  in  connection  with  other  labor  or- 
ganizations the  first  Monday  of  September  in  each  year  as  a 
National  Labor  Holiday. 

11.  RESOLVED:     That  all  local  organizations  of    tailors 
should  affiliate  with  their  own  National  Union  in  preference 
to  any  other  body. 

i22As  originally  passed  by  the  Convention,  each  member  was  to 
pay  five  cents  a  month  for  the  paper,  but  within  a  couple  of  months 
after  the  adjournment  of  the  Convention  the  General  Executive  Board, 
finding  funds  sufficient,  took  the  responsibility  of  furnishing  the  Jour- 
nal free  of  charge,  and  this  has  been  the  practice  ever  since. 

i23ReSolutions  of  1885,  No.  10.  See  Appendix  for  full  text  of  these 
resolutions. 

i24Constitution  of   1887,  pp.  20-21. 


74  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

12.  RESOLVED:     That  what  is  known  as  the    sweating 
system  is  very  injurious  to  our  trade,  and  we  therefore  call 
upon  all  local  unions  to  give  the  matter  careful  consideration, 
and  try  and  devise  means  to  stop  it. 

13.  RESOLVED:     That  we  do  hereby  submit  to  the  local 
unions  for  careful  consideration  during  the  next  two  years 
the  following  propositions,  believing  that  their  adoption  will 
result  in  much  good : 

First. — To  establish  throughout  all  unions  a  uniform  sys- 
tem of  benefits. 

Second. — To  equalize  the  funds,  dues  and  initiation  fees 
of  all  local  unions. 

Third. — To  pay  in  full  the  expenses  of  delegates  to  the 
conventions. 

14.  RESOLVED:     That  all  local  unions  are  hereby  urged 
to    thoroughly  discuss    the  above  propositions  and    instruct 
their  delegates  to  the  next  convention  in  regard  to  them. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  convention  of  1887 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of 
America  as  a  permanent  business  institution.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  chief  officers  elected 
by  this  convention  held  their  positions  for  many  years  fol- 
lowing. Mr.  Frederick  Werner,  who  was  re-elected  Treas- 
urer, held  his  office  until  July,  1906,  only  eighteen  months  be- 
fore his  death ;  and  Mr.  John  B.  Lennon,  who  was  now  elected 
Secretary  for  the  first  time,  served  continuously  for  twenty- 
three  years.125 

Concluding  Note. 

It  has  been  decided  not  to  carry  this  chronological  sketch 
beyond  the  year  1887,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  files  of  the 

i25Mr.  Lennon  served  from  August,  1887,  to  July  I,  1910,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Eugene  J.  Brais.  A  brief  biographical  sketch 
of  both  of  these  officers  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  75 

official  Journal  begin  with  that  date,120  thus  affording  an  op- 
portunity for  more  detailed  studies.127  It  may,  however,  be 
remarked  here  that  no  essential  change  of  principle  has  taken 
place  in  the  organization  since  its  foundation.  The  member- 
ship has  risen,  fallen,  risen  and  fallen  again,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  industrial  conditions  and  the  internal  evolution  of  the 
trade.  Important  crises  have  been  passed;  serious  battles 
won  and  lost;  policies  have  been  initiated,  improved,  and 
made  a  part  of  the  movement,  but  the  fundamental  purpose, 
as  stated  today,  is  not  different  from  that  when  the  union 
was  founded,  namely :  "To  rescue  our  trade  from  the  con- 
dition to  which  it  has  fallen and  by  all  honest  and  just 

means  to  elevate  the  moral,  social,  and  intellectual  condition 
of  our  members."128 

126 The  opening  number  of  The  Tailor  is  dated  October,  1887. 

i27The    first    of    these    studies,    a    statistical    investigation,    will     be 
found   in  the    following  chapter. 

i2SConstitution,   1910,  p.   5. 


APPENDICES 


CHAPTER  THREE 


APPENDIX  A. 
OUTLINE  OF  TAILORS'  UNIONS  IN  ENGLAND,  1721-1834. 

Note.  The  material  for  the  following  outline  is  taken 
from  Galton,  The  Tailoring  Trade. 

1721.  Tailors'  combinations  and  strikes  in  London.  Act 
passed  to  regulate  tailors. 

1725-29.  A  poem  appears  annually  in  Dublin,  inscribed 
to  the  "Ancient  and  Loyal  Society  of  Journeymen  Tailors" 
of  that  city. 

1730.  Anti-combination  act  passed  by  Irish  Parliament; 
trade  clubs  subside. 

1744-45.  Widespread  disturbances  in  London,  involving 
15,000  journeymen  tailors.  The  Privy  Council  directs  the 
Justices  of  the  Peace  to  enforce  the  Act  of  1721.  Licenses  of 
five  taverns  revoked  for  harboring  tailors'  combinations. 

1748.  Strike  in  Edinburgh.  21  tailors  are  indicted  and 
their  combination  broken  up. 

1751,  July.  Tailors  of  London  secure  raise  of  about  6  d. 
per  day  from  the  Court  of  Quarter-Sessions. 

1751.  September.     Journeymen  again  become  restless  and 
demand  advance.    A  reduction  of  one  hour  a  day  from  work- 
ing time  is  secured  from  the  City  Sessions  of  London. 

1752.  Master-tailors  send  petition  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons setting  forth  grievances.     Journeymen  present  counter- 
petition.     After  some  argument  the  whole  matter  is  dropped. 

1753.  Quarter-Sessions  of  London  grant  a  1 2-hour  day. 
1763.     Another  slight  increase  in  wages  is  granted. 
1763-67.     Period  of  constant  dissensions  in  the  trade. 
1767.     A    humorous   play   is   produced    at   the    Theater 

79 


80  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Royal  in  the  Haymarket,  entitled,  "The  Tailors;  a  Tragedy 
for  Warm  Weather." 

1768.  Laws  regulating  tailors  are  again  revised  by  Par- 
liament, largely  in  the  interest  of  the  masters.  Journeymen 
enter  a  protest.  Laws  are  evaded  by  both  masters  and  jour- 
neymen, so  far  as  the  maximum  wage  is  concerned. 

1768.     Strike  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland. 

1729-72.  Ireland.  Little  complaint  or  legislation  in  Ire- 
land during  this  period  with  regard  to  combinations. 

1772.  Ireland.  Dublin's  Trades'  Clubs  reviving.  A  special 
bill  is  passed  by  the  Irish  Parliament  to  regulate  Journeymen 
Tailors.  Wages  and  hours  are  established,  and  combinations 
forbidden. 

1772.  London  tailors  secure  raise  of  from  6d.  to  is.  a 
day  from  the  City  Sessions. 

1777.  Birmingham     tailors     strike    against    piece-work 
system. 

1778.  A  part  of  the  master-tailors  of  London  complain 
of  the  flat-rate  system  for  all  journeymen.    Bills  are  brought 
into  Parliament  to  change  this  feature.     Another  section  of 
the  masters  oppose  the  bills.     The  House  is  bewildered  and 
makes  no  change. 

1783.  Seven  tailors  of  Liverpool  are  prosecuted  for 
combination. 

1797.  Tailors  of  Aberdeen  again  on  strike.  Twelve  are 
convicted  of  illegal  combination  and  sentenced  to  fines  and 
imprisonment. 

1799-1800.  General  Combination  Acts  passed,  affecting 
all  trades.129 

1800.     Master  Tailors  again    present    petition    of    com- 

i29\Vebb,  p.  63.  Beginning  with  this  date  the  tailors'  history  is 
taken  largely  from  the  documents  collected  by  Francis  Place,  who  be- 
gan life  as  a  journeymen  leather-breeches  maker,  becoming  later  a 
master  tailor.  This  man  was  a  leader  in  the  movement  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Combination  Acts.  (Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism,  p.  85). 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  81 

plaints.  Journeymen  are  striking  for  a  raise  from  253.  to 
3  os.  a  week.  Court  of  Quarter-Sessions  grants  273. 13° 

1805.  Revival  of  the  farce,  "The  Tailors;  a  Tragedy  for 
Warm  Weather,"  causes  a  riot  in  London.131 

1807.  Strike  in  London  for  303.  a  week.  Victory  for 
the  men. 

181011.  Strong  association  of  employing  tailors  formed 
in  London.  Plans  are  made  to  fight  the  union.  A  new  bill 
is  presented  by  the  masters  to  Parliament.  The  employers 
are  divided  and  the  bill  is  dropped. 

1811,  Further  complaints  and  demands  of  employers  to 
Parliament  are  ineffective,  due  largely  to  influence  of  Fran- 
cis Place. 

1812.  Printed  rules  of  a  London  Tailors'  Club  of  this 
date  are  preserved.132 

isoDouble  wages,  or  54  s.,  were  to  be  paid  in  case  of  a  "general 
mourning." 

131  An  interesting  account  of  this  affair  has  been  found  in  the  Tailor, 
May,  1907,  p.  17,  entitled,  "The  Tailors  in  Riot,"  being  reprinted  from 
an  article  in  The  American  Tailor  and  Cutter : 

"In  1769  Foote  had  produced  a  burlesque,  the  author  of  which  has 
never  been  discovered,  entitled  "The  Tailors;  a  Tragedy  for  Warm 
Weather."  Dowton  announced  the  revival  of  this  piece  for  his  benefit. 
As  the  title  implies,  it  is  a  satire  upon  the  sartorial  craft,  and  upon  the 
bills  being  issued  an  indignation  meeting  was  convened  by  the  knights 
of  the  needle,  who  vowed  to  oppose  the  performance  by  might  and  main. 

"Menacing  letters  were  sent  to  Dowton  telling  him  that  17,000  tailors 
would  attend  to  his  piece,  and  one,  who  signed  himself  'Death,'  added 
that  10,000  men  could  be  found  if  necessary.  The  threats  were  laughed 
at  by  the  actors,  but  when  night  came  it  was  discovered  that  the  craft 
were  in  earnest,  and  with  few  exceptions  they  had  contrived  to  secure 
every  seat  in  the  house,  while  a  mob  without  still  squeezed  for  admission. 
The  moment  Dowton  appeared  upon  the  stage  there  was  a  hideous  uproar 
and  someone  threw  a  pair  of  shears  at  him. 

"Not  a  word  would  the  rioters  listen  to,  nor  would  they  accept  any 
compromise  in  the  way  of  changing  the  piece.  Within  howled  and  hissed 
without  intermission  hundreds  of  exasperated  tailors ;  outside  howled  and 
bellowed  thousands  of  raging  tailors,  who  attempted  to  storm  the  house. 
So  formidable  did  the  riot  wax  that  a  magistrate  had  to  be  sent  for  and 
special  constables  called  out,  but  these  were  helpless  against  the  over- 
whelming odds,  so  a  troop  of  life  guards  was  ultimately  summoned,  who 
after  making  sixteen  prisoners,  put  the  rest  to  flight." 

i32Galton,  pp.  132-145. 


82  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

1818-19.  "The  Gorgon,"  a  small  London  periodical,  con- 
tains numerous  articles  by  Francis  Place,  describing  Tailors' 
Unions  of  this  period.133 

1819.  Copies  are  preserved  of  half-yearly  reports  and 
balance-sheets  of  a  Tailors'  Club  of  this  date.134 

1823.  Strike  in  Edinburgh. 

1824.  Attempt  to  federate  the  tailors'  clubs  of  London 
for  benefit  purposes. 

1824-25.     Repeal  of  the  general  Combination  Acts. 

1825.  Strike  in  Birmingham. 
1828.     Strike  in  Sheffield. 

1831-32.  Tailors  take  active  part  with  other  workers  in 
political  reforms. 

1834.  A  big  tailors'  strike  in  London,  involving  more 
than  six  hundred  shops.  Masters  organize  firmly  and  replace 
men  in  part  by  women.  Journeymen  are  completely  routed. 

1834.  A  similar  strike  fails  in  Manchester.  General 
conditions  are  rapidly  changing.  The  old  tailors'  clubs  are 
breaking  up.  The  date  is  characterized  by  premature  efforts 
at  national  organization  and  general  strikes  in  many  trades, 
led  largely  by  Robert  Owen.135 

iss ibid.,  pp.  146-60. 
i34Galton,  pp.  161-163. 

i35The  above  outline  has  been  purposely  interrupted  at  the  date  of 
1834,  as  indicating  a  crisis  in  the  trade,  and  the  beginning  of  new  types 
of  organization. 


APPENDIX  B. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS' 
NATIONAL  UNION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1885. 

(As  adopted  by  the  Third  Annual  Convention,   Baltimore, 
Md.,  August  10-15,  1885). 


PREAMBLE. 

WHEREAS,  We,  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Delegates,  from 
the  various  cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  Convention  assembled,  have  seen  the  necessity  of  a  thor- 
ough organization  of  our  trade,  and  that  a  common  cause  and 
the  universal  sympathy  with  all  who  work  at  our  trade,  de- 
mand of  us  to  urge  the  immediate  unity  and  consolidation  of 
all  the  various  organizations  throughout  the  United  States, 
in  order  that  we  may  form  a  common  bond  of  brotherhood, 
having  for  our  object  the  elevation  oi  our  social  and  moral 
standing,  not  only  amongst  other  branches  of  industry,  but 
in  the  community  at  large,  and  the  advancing  of  the  material 
interests  of  our  trade,  believing  as  we  do,  that  it  will  serve 
our  employers,  while  it  elevates  our  condition;  (therefore  have 
we  adopted  the  following  Constitution  and  By-Laws)  :136 

i36The  preamble  as  printed  was  apparently  incomplete;  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  change  one  or  two  words  and  to  add  the  clause  in 
parenthesis  in  order  to  establish  the  connection. 


83 


84  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE  i.  NAME  OF  THE  ORGANIZATION. — This  or- 
ganization shall  be  known  as  the  "Journeymen  Tailors'  Na- 
tional Union  of  the  United  States." 

ARTICLE  2.  OBJECT. — The  object  of  this  union  shall 
be  to  consolidate  the  interests  of  the  trade  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  organize  unions  where  none  exist,  and  in 
every  legitimate  way  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  capital. 

ARTICLE  3.  OFFICERS. — The  officers  of  the  National 
Union  shall  consist  of  a  President,  four  Vice-Presidents,  Sec- 
retary, and  Treasurer,  who  combined  shall  constitute  the  Ex- 
ecutive Board,  the  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  one  Vice-Presi- 
dent  to  be  elected  from  one  Local  Union. 

ARTICLE  4.  AUDITORS. — Two  Auditors  shall  be  elected 
from  the  same  Local  Union  from  which  the  Secretary  and 
Treasurer  have  been  elected. 

ARTICLE  5.    DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

Section  i.  The  Executive  Board.  The  duties  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive Board  shall  be  executive  in  character ;  they  shall  have 
the  power  to  arbitrate  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  trade, 
and  as  affecting  the  employer  and  employee,  and  have  full 
power  to  act,  when  such  differences  occur  as  cannot  be  settled 
by  arbitration.  The  Executive  Board  shall  also  be  required 
to  furnish  semi-annually  a  complete  report  of  the  financial 
condition  of  the  National  Union,  copies  of  which  shall  be 
furnished  to  each  local  union.  They  shall  conduct  all  busi- 
ness by  mail  or  telegraph  except  in  very  urgent  cases  when 
they  can  convene  by  obtaining  the  consent  of  two-thirds  of 
all  local  unions  belonging  to  the  National  Union. 

Section  2.  Duties  of  President.  The  President  shall  pre- 
side at  all  meetings  of  the  National  Union,  preserve  order, 
and  enforce  the  laws  thereof;  he  shall  give  the  casting  vote 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  85 

in  case  of  a  tie,  and  perform  all  such  other  duties  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  this  Constitution. 

Section  3.  Duties  of  Vice- Presidents.  The  Vice-Presi- 
dents  shall  perform  all  the  duties  of  President  in  his  absence. 

Section  4.  Duties  of  Secretary.  The  duties  of  the  Sec- 
retary shall  be  to  receive  all  dues  of  the  National  Union,  for 
which  he  shall  forward  a  receipt  within  one  week  for  the 
same,  which  receipt  shall  be  countersigned  by  the  Treasurer, 
and  he  shall  pay  the  same  over  to  the  Treasurer  weekly;  he 
shall  conduct  all  correspondence  between  the  National  and 
Local  Unions;  he  shall  also  be  the  custodian  of  the  seal  of 
the  Union  and  shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be 
required  of  him  in  conformity  with  this  Constitution  and 
By-Laws. 

Section  5.  Duties  of  Treasurer.  The  Treasurer  shall  be 
the  custodian  of  all  funds  of  the  National  Union,  and  shall 
countersign  all  receipts  forwarded  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
National  Union  to  Local  Unions  for  dues.  He  shall  pay  out 
all  moneys  vouched  for  by  a  majority  of  the  Executive  Board, 
and  shall  give  a  good  and  sufficient  bond  to  the  Executive 
Board,  the  amount  of  said  bond  to  be  determined  by  the 
Convention ;  the  sufficiency  of  the  bond  to  be  approved  by  the 
Local  Union  of  which  the  Treasurer  is  a  member.  He  shall 
also  together  with  the  Secretary  deposit  all  funds  received  by 
him  within  one  week  in  a  reliable  bank,  and  shall  not  draw 
out  the  same  or  any  part  thereof,  without  the  signature  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  National  Union  and  the  Trustees  of  the 
Union  to  which  he  belongs;  an  order  for  the  payment  of 
money  signed  by  a  majority  of  the  Executive  Board,  shall  be 
sufficient  authority  for  the  Trustees  of  the  Local  Union.  He 
ma^  retain  in  his  possession  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
and  no  more,  for  current  expenses  of  the  National  Union. 

Section  6.  Duties  of  Auditors.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  Auditors  to  examine  the  books  of  the  Secretary  and 


86  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Treasurer  semi-annually,  and  report  thereon  to  the  Executive 
Board,  who  shall  print  and  distribute  such  report  to  the  local 
unions. 

Section  7.  The  term  of  office  for  all  officers  of  the  Na- 
tional Union  shall  expire  when  their  successors  are  duly 
elected  and  qualified. 

Section  8.  The  outgoing  officers  shall  hand  over  all 
books,  papers,  moneys,  and  all  other  property  belonging  to 
the  National  Union  to  their  successors. 

ARTICLE  6.    TRAVELING  AND  WITHDRAWAL  CARDS. 

Section  i.  Members,  who  go  traveling,  will  receive  a 
traveling  card  from  their  Local  Union;  such  card  must  be 
signed  by  the  Secretary  and  presented  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Union  where  the  holder  obtains  works  or  locates  within  eight 
days  of  time  of  such  location.  If  there  is  no  Union  at  the 
place,  the  card '  must  be  sent  to  the  nearest  Union  in  the 
vicinity. 

Section  2.  Any  member  who  leaves  the  trade  or  goes  out 
of  the  country,  after  paying  all  dues,  fines,  etc.,  is  entitled  to 
a  Withdrawal  Card  from  the  Union  to  which  he  was  attached. 
Such  card  entitles  the  holder  to  re-admission  in  any  Local 
Union  without  admission  fee,  provided  that  such  member  has 
not  acted  against  the  interests  of  the  Union. 

Section  3.  This  National  Union  cannot  be  dissolved  as 
long  as  five  Local  Unions  declare  in  favor  of  its  continuance. 


BY-LAWS. 


ARTICLE  i.  The  Convention  of  the  National  Union  shall 
be  held  biennially  and  commence  the  first  Monday  in  August. 
The  Convention  before  adjourning  shall  appoint  the  place  for 
holding  the  next  Convention. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  87 

ARTICLE  2.  The  President  shall  appoint  a  Committee  on 
Credentials,  consisting  of  three  delegates. 

ARTICLE  3.  The  roll  of  Local  Unions  and  presentation  of 
credentials  shall  be  first  in  order  after  opening  the  Conven- 
tion. 

ARTICLE  4.  All  Local  Unions  shall  be  entitled  to  one 
delegate  to  the  Convention,  and  all  Unions  of  200  members 
and  under  300,  shall  be  entitled  to  two  delegates,  and  all 
Unions  of  over  300  members  shall  be  entitled  to  three  dele- 
gates and  no  more. 

ARTICLE  5-  The  Secretary  is  empowered  to  group  small 
Local  Unions  before  the  Convention  meets,  to  send  delegates 
based  on  the  ratio  provided  in  the  foregoing  section. 

ARTICLE  6.  Any  Local  Union  may  become  a  'member  of 
the  National  Union  on  application  to  the  Secretary  and  pay- 
ment of  an  initation  fee  of  five  dollars. 

ARTICLE  7.  Seven  members  may  organize  a  Local  Union 
where  none  exists ;  they  will  be  granted  a  charter  by  the 
Secretary  upon  application  and  the  initiation  fee. 

ARTICLE  8.  Each  Local  Union  may  make  its  own  Con- 
stitution and  By-Laws,  which  must,  however,  be  in  accord 
with  this  Constitution  and  By-Laws. 

ARTICLE  9.  Every  Local  Union  shall  pay  to  the  National 
Secretary  the  monthly  dues  of  ten  cents  per  capita,  said  dues 
to  be  forwarded  every  three  months  with  a  statement  of 
their  condition;  blanks  for  said  statement  to  be  furnished 
free  of  charge  by  the  National  Secretary;  dues  to  be  for- 
warded on  the  first  day  of  October,  January,  April  and  July 
of  each  year.  But  Local  Unions  of  over  200  members  are 
recommended  to  pay  their  dues  monthly. 

ARTICLE  10.  Local  Unions  six  months  in  arrears  shall 
not  be  entitled  to  protection  from  the  National  Union  until 
all  arrears  are  paid  up  and  they  are  clear  on  the  books  at 
least  one  month. 


88  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

ARTICLE  ii.  Any  member  out  of  work  on  account  of  a 
strike  or  lockout  recognized  by  the  Executive  Board  shall  be 
paid  four  dollars  per  week  during  its  continuance. 

ARTICLE  12.  Whenever  any  Local  Union  intends  to  in- 
itiate a  strike,  but  cannot  do  so  without  the  aid  of  the  Nat- 
ional Union,  it  must  notify  the  Secretary  of  the  National 
Union  immediately;  such  notice  to  contain  a  full  account 
of  the  reasons  and  circumstances,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
men  expected  to  go  on  strike. 

ARTICLE  13.  No  strike  in  any  Local  Union  shall  be  sup- 
ported by  the  National  Union  unless  the  Local  Union  has 
complied  with  the  requirements  of  this  Constitution,  and  is 
duly  authorized  by  the  Executive  Board.  But  the  National 
Union  shall  not  support  any  strike  declared  in  the  months  of 
January,  February,  July  and  August. 

ARTICLE  14.  The  Executive  Board  may  recognize  and 
support  any  strike  caused  by  a  reduction  and  a  lockout  forced 
on  the  Local  Union  by  the  employers  without  previous  notice 
of,  the  Local  Union,  but  no  financial  benefit  shall  be  paid  by 
the  National  Union  by  the  Local  Union  for  the  first  week 
of  any  strike. 

ARTICLE  15.  In  case  of  any  strike  or  lockout,  the  Exe- 
cutive Board  shall  have  power  to  appoint  a  Committee  to 
effect  a  settlement  of  the  differences  existing  between  the 
employer  and  the  employees,  and  if  the  Committee  so  ap- 
pointed effects  a  settlement,  by  arbitration  or  otherwise,  and 
the  Local  Union  refuses  to  comply  with  the  terms  of  said 
settlement,  then  the  Local  Union  shall  support  the  strike  or 
lockout  from  their  own  local  funds. 

ARTICLE  16.  The  Executive  Board  shall  have  power  in 
case  of  a  strike  or  lockout,  when  the  funds  of  the  National 
Union  are  exhausted,  to  declare  a  special  levy,  but  not  to  an 
amount  of  more  than  50  cents  in  any  one  quarter. 

ARTICLE  17.     In  extreme  cases  of  a  long-continued  strike 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  89 

or  lockout,  the  Executive  Board  shall  submit  to  the  Local 
Unions  for  their  vote  propositions  for  a  further  levy,  which 
shall  receive  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the  members  of 
the  Local  Unions,  before  being  declared  by  the  Executive 
Board  adopted. 

ARTICLE  1 8.  All  levies  authorized  by  the  General  Exe- 
cutive Board  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  National  Secretary 
within  thirty  days  after  the  time  the  same  were  declared. 

ARTICLE  19.  No  Local  Union  shall  be  subject  to  a  levy 
for  the  first  six  months  of  their  membership  in  the  National 
Union. 

ARTICLE  20.  If  any  member  of  a  Local  Union,  having 
violated  the  conditions  imposed  upon  him  by  the  Constitu- 
tion of  this  Union,  either  leaves  or  is  expelled  from  the 
same,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Local  Secretary  to  notify  the 
Secretary  of  the  National  Union  of  such  action,  who  shall 
at  once  notify  all  Local  Unions.  Such  member  shall  not  be 
eligible  to  membership  in  any  other  union,  until  all  indebted- 
ness against  him  by  his  Local  Union  shall  have  been  paid. 

ARTICLE  21.  The  Secretary  must  be  notified  of  every 
change  of  address  of  Local  Secretaries. 

ARTICLE  22.  The  Convention  shall  fix  the  salaries  of 
officers  and  shall  have  full  power  to  amend  Constitution  if 
necessary. 

ARTICLE  23.  Propositions  of  amendments  to  this  Con- 
stitution shall  be  forwarded  to  the  Secretary  of  the  National 
Union  at  least  three  months  before  the  meeting  of  the  next 
Convention,  and  the  Secretary  shall  be  required  to  notify  im- 
mediately all  Local  Unions  of  such  propositions. 

ARTICLE  24.  The  expenses  of  delegates  to  the  National 
Convention  shall  be  paid  by  the  Local  Unions  they  represent. 

ARTICLE  25.  Expenses  of  the  President,  Secretary,  and 
Treasurer  of  the  National  Union  to  the  Annual  Convention 
shall  be  paid  from  the  funds  of  the  National  Union,  but 


90  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

they  shall  not  be  eligible  as  delegates  from  their  Local  Unions. 

ARTICLE  26.  No  Local  Union  shall  be  entitled  to  any 
benefit  until  such  union  has  been  at  least  six  months  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Union,  and  is  clear  on  the  books  of  the 
National  Union. 

ARTICLE  27.  All  propositions  submitted  to  the  Local 
Unions  for  their  approval  or  disapproval,  shall  in  order  to 
become  legal  and  binding  have  a  two-thirds  majority;  the 
exact  number  voting  "Aye"  and  the  exact  number  voting 
"Nay"  shall  be  taken  by  the  local  secretary  and  forwarded 
to  the  General  Secretary,  who  shall  compute  the  result  and 
notify  the  Executive  Board  and  Local  Unions  of  the  same. 

ARTICLE  28.  In  case  of  disability  of  any  officer  of  the 
Executive  Board,  either  through  sickness,  death  or  retire- 
ment, the  vacancy  shall  be  filled  by  the  Local  Union  of  which 
such  officer  was  a  member. 

ARTICLE  29.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  and 
Treasurer  to  secure  and  carry  out  a  uniform  system  of  keep- 
ing the  accounts  of  the  National  Union. 


RESOLUTIONS. 

1.  Resolved:    We  declare  ourselves  in  firm  terms  to  be 
in  true  accord  with  all  labor  unions  in  the  United  States,  and 
pledge  them  our  support  to  bring  about  remedial  measures  in 
the  interest  of  Labor  in  general. 

2.  Resolved:   We  believe  that  a  permanent  improvement 
of  the  condition  of  the  wage-working  class  cannot  be  effected 
by  any  means  whatever,  unless  accompanied  by  a  reduction 
in  the  hours  of  labor. 

3.  Resolved:  The  Prison  Contract  Labor  System  as  car- 
ried on  in  the  prisons  and  penitentiaries  of  several  states  of 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  91 

the  Union  is  economically  impolitic  and  an  insult  to  the  feel- 
ings and  an  injury  to  the  interests  of  the  working  people  in 
general.  We  therefore  urge  the  necessity  upon  all  labor  or- 
ganizations to  demand  its  abolition. 

4.  Resolved:   We  recommend  the  principles  of  co-opera- 
tion to  our  trade  and  the  working  classes  in  general  when 
practicable. 

5.  Resolved:  That  in  the  opinion  of  this  Convention  the 
best  interest  of  the  trade  will  be  served  by  the  establishment 
of  a  trade  organ.     We  therefore  earnestly  recommend  to  the 
Local  Unions  the  necessity  of  the  same,  and  request  the  Ex- 
ecutive Board  to  find  a  paper  which  shall  be  the  recognized 
organ  of  this  Union  until  we  start  one  of  our  own. 

6.  Resolved:    That  we  unequivocally  condemn  the  sys- 
tem in  the  trade  of  having  the  work  done  in  our  homes,  and 
while  we  recognize  the  system  to  be  deep  rooted,  we  would 
recommend  the  gradual  substitution  of  the  system  of  work- 
shops provided  by  the  employers  of  trades. 

7.  Resolved:   We  recognize  the  inexpediency  at  the  pres- 
ent time  of  attaching  a  sick  and  burial  fund  to  the  National 
Union,  but  we  fully  recognize  the  benefits  to  be  derived  there- 
from, and  call  on  all  Unions  to  give  it  their  most  serious 
consideration  and  adopt  it  as  soon  as  possible. 

8.  Resolved:   We  as  a  body  thoroughly  approve  of  the 
object  of  the  organized  Trade  and    Labor    Unions    of    the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  pledge  ourselves  to  give  it 
our  earnest  support. 

9.  Resolved:  That  we  recommend  all  Local  Unions  to 
attach  themselves  to  any  representative  Central  Labor  Union 
or  Trades  Assembly  existing  in  their  vicinity. 

10.  WHEREAS,  the  delegates  to    this    Convention    have 
after  careful  consideration  postponed  the  Annual  Convention 
so  that  no  Convention  will  be  held  for  two  years,  therefore 
be  it 


92  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Resolved,  That  in  case  any  serious  matter  arises  during 
the  interim  between  the  Conventions,  or  should  the  Constitu- 
tion or  By-Laws  be  found  insufficient  or  unwise,  the  Execu- 
tive Board  shall  on  the  united  request  of  seven  or  more  Local 
Unions,  submit  to  a  vote  to  the  general  body  any  proposition 
that  seven  or  more  Local  Unions  shall  demand  to  have  sub- 
mitted, and  in  case  the  propositions  shall  be  carried  the  Exe- 
cutive Board  shall  be  governed  thereby.137 

i3?At  date  of  writing,  the  above  constitution  was  the  oldest  in  the 
writer's  collection.  Constitutions  have  since  been  discovered  of  1865  and 
1884,  but  too  late  to  be  incorporated  in  this  thesis. 


JOHN    B.    LENNON, 


APPENDIX  C. 
BIOGRAPHICAL,  SKETCH,  JOHN  B.  LENNON. 

John  Brown  Lennon,  the  son  of  John  A.  and  Elizabeth 
F.  Lennon,  was  born  in  Lafayette  County,  Wisconsin,  Octo- 
ber 12,  1850.  When  he  was  two  years  of  age  the  family 
removed  to  Hannibal,  Missouri,  and  here  the  greater  part 
of  his  boyhood  was  spent.  He  had  few  advantages  as  to 
education,  being  obliged  at  the  age  of  eleven  to  take  hold 
with  his  mother  and  help  work  the  small  farm  on  which  they 
lived,  the  father  having  entered  the  Union  Army  in  1861. 
John  Lennon,  Sr.,  was  a  tailor  by  trade.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  reopened  his  shop  in  Hannibal,  and  his  son  started 
in  to  learn  the  trade.  After  a  four  years'  apprenticeship  the 
son  set  out  for  the  west,  and  in  1869  opened  a  merchant 
tailoring  store  in  Denver,  Colorado.  The  following  year  his 
parents  and  sisters  also  came  to  Denver  and  his  father  took 
charge  of  the  shop.  After  this  John  B.  Lennon  worked  as 
a  journeyman  for  various  merchant  tailors  of  Denver,  con- 
tinuing this  employment  until  about  July,  1886. 

Mr.  Lennon  had  been  active  in  forming  a  tailors'  union 
in  Denver.  This  union  became  affiliated  with  the  new  Na- 
tional organization  before  the  close  of  the  convention  year, 
1883.  At  this  time  Lennon  was  Secretary  of  the  Denver 
union.  In  1884,  while  acting  as  president  of  the  same  union, 
he  was  appointed  as  a  delegate  to  the  Chicago  convention  of 
the  National  Union.  At  this  convention  he  was  elected 
President  of  the  National,  and  at  the  1885  convention  was 
elected  one  of  the  vice-presidents.  At  the  New  York  con- 
vention in  1887  he  was  elected  General  Secretary  and  editor 

93 


94  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

of  the  official  Journal,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  New 
York,  as  the  headquarters  of  the  National  Union.  In  1896 
the  general  office  was  removed  to  Bloomington,  Illinois,  and 
the  Secretary  moved  with  his  family  to  this  locality,  where 
he  has  continued  to  make  his  home  until  the  present  date. 
The  office  of  Secretary  he  held  until  July,  1910,  when  he  was 
superseded  by  Mr.  Eugene  J.  Brais,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Mr.  Lennon  has  been  present  at  practically  every  Con- 
vention of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of  America,  usu- 
ally in  his  official  capacity  as  an  officer.  In  1887  he  was  one 
of  the  delegates  of  the  Tailors'  Union  to  the  Convention  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  and  has  been  a  delegate 
at  every  one  of  their  annual  meetings  since  that  date.  At 
the  Detroit  Convention  in  1888  he  was  elected  Treasurer  of 
the  Federation,  and  has  been  annually  reelected.  By  virtue 
of  this  appointment  he  is  a  member  of  the  Executive  Coun- 
cil, and  has  been  closely  associated  with  Mr.  Gompers,  Mr- 
Mitchell,  and  others  prominent  in  the  labor  movement. 

In  recent  years  Mr.  Lennon  has  become  well  known  as  a 
public  speaker,  especially  upon  the  subject  of  Church  and 
Labor  and  upon  the  Anti-Saloon  movement.  He  has  ad- 
dressed a  number  of  large  meetings  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  upon  these  subjects,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  fight  against  the  liquor  traffic.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Committee  on  Social  Service  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil of  the  Churches  of  Christ,  and  has  taken  an  active  part 
in  the  recent  movement  toward  a  closer  affiliation  between 
the  church  and  the  masses. 


APPENDIX  D. 
BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH,  EUGENE  J.  BRAIS. 

Eugene  J.  Brais  was  born  in  St.  John's,  Quebec,  June 
1 8,  1880,  both  of  his  parents  being  of  French  Canadian 
descent.  When  he  was  five  years  of  age  the  family  moved  to 
Montreal.  Here  he  attended  parochial  school  until  the  age 
of  ten,  when  his  people  moved  to  the  United  States,  taking 
up  residence  in  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  boy  attended  the  pub- 
lic schools  in  Cleveland  for  three  years,  after  which  he  turned 
to  the  trades,  working  for  about  two  years  at  printing,  and 
for  about  three  years  at  making  and  selling  shoes.  In  1899 
he  took  up  the  tailoring  trade,  and  prepared  himself  for  a 
coatmaker. 

The  Brais  family  were  all  active  unionists,  his  father  be- 
ing a  carpenter,  and  a  member  successively  of  the  Knights 
of  Labor  and  the  United  Brotherhood  of  Carpenters,  while 
several  brothers  and  sisters  have  been  union  members.  Eu- 
gene J.  Brais  soon  became  prominent  in  the  Cleveland  move- 
ment, and  in  1907  was  elected  Business  Agent  of  the  local 
Tailors'  Union  in  that  city.  In  1909  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Buffalo  Convention  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union 
of  America,  and  a  member  of  the  Committee  on  Laws  and 
Audit.  At  the  opening  of  the  Convention  he  was  elected 
Chairman,  and  was  regarded  as  the  spokesman  of  the  Social- 
ist or  "progressive"  element.  Following  this  Convention  he 
became  a  candidate  for  General  Secretary,  and  when  the  vote 
was  taken,  December  13,  1909,  he  was  elected,  to  take  office 
July  i,  1910.  On  this  date  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Bloom- 

95 


96  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

ington,  Illinois,  the  location  of  the  general  headquarters,  and 
continues  to  make  his  home  in  that  city. 

In  1900  Mr.  Brais  became  a  member  of  the  Socialist 
Party,  and  has  since  been  an  active  leader  in  this  movement. 
He  is  held  to  represent  that  element  in  the  National  Tailors' 
Union  which  believes  in  maintaining  the  organization  for  trade 
purposes,  but  desires  in  addition  a  more  vigorous  Socialist 
propaganda  than  the  more  conservative  unionists.  Mr.  Brais 
has  been  a  delegate  to  several  Conventions  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  and  is  regarded  as  a  rising  leader  in 
those  branches  of  social  reform  in  which  he  is  interested. 


CHAPTER  4- 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS'  UNION  OF 
AMERICA. 


CHAPTER  4. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS'  UNION  OF 
AMERICA. 

I.      Development  of  the    Journeymen    Tailor/    Union    of 

America,  1883-1911. 

Table  i.   Condition  of  the  National  Union,  1883-1911. 

(a)  Source  and  accuracy.  The  figures  in  this  table  are 
taken  from  the  reports  of  the  general  officers  to  the  succes- 
sive legislative  sessions  of  the  National  Union.138  The  bal- 
ances in  the  general  fund  as  indicated  for  the  several  dates 
are  taken  from  the  audited  accounts  and  are  correct.  The 
number  of  local  unions  is  also  correct.  The  number  of  mem- 
bers on  each  date  is  given  as  reported  by  the  Secretary.  It 
may  vary  in  the  larger  figures  as  much  as  500  from  an  ac- 
curate statement,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  membership 
was  not  exactly  the  same  from  month  to  month,  changing  on 
account  of  members  initiated  and  members  suspended  for 
non-payment  of  dues. 

(b)    Special  Notes. 

i.  Variations  in  number  of  locals.  The  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of  locals  from  1887  to  1893  is  explained  by 
the  adoption  of  a  vigorous  organizing  policy,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  paid  secretary.  By  this  means  practically  all  of  the 
scattered  tailors'  unions  not  previously  affiliated  were  brought 
into  the  National,  and  in  addition  a  number  of  new  locals 
were  organized. 

issQwing  to  the  lack  of  published  proceedings  of  the  Convention  of 
1883,  the  writer  has  been  obliged  to  estimate  the  membership  of  the  five 
charter  locals, — New  York,  Philadelphia,  Troy,  Baltimore  and  Pittsburgh, 
from  the  membership  of  the  same  unions  in  1884. 

99 


100 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


From  1893  to  1899  a  decline  is  noted,  due  primarily  to 
the  after-effects  of  the  panic.139  Following  this  industrial 
depression,  there  is  a  steady  increase  in  membership  until 
1907,  when  another  decline  begins.  This  is  undoubtedly  due 
in  the  main  to  the  rapid  development  of  the  special-order 
and  agency  trade,  which,  as  suggested  in  a  former  chapter, 
has  nearly  destroyed  old-line  tailoring  in  some  of  the  smaller 
towns. 

At  the  present  date  the  administration  is  spending  large 
sums  of  money  for  organizing  purposes,  and  a  special  effort 
is  being  made  to  organize  tailors  working  on  the  new  systems. 
This  policy  may  succeed  in  arresting  the  decline  in  member- 
ship. 

TABLE  i. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  UNION,  1883-1911. 
Number    Total     Average  General  Fund 


Date 


of     Member-  Member- 


Locals 

ship 

ship 

Balance 

per 

on  hand 

Local 

Aug.,          1883 

5 

1,  800 

360.0 

July        i,  1884 

16 

2,402 

150.0 

Aug.     15,  1885 

23 

2,481 

107.9 

Aug.    15    1887 

27 

2,512 

93-0 

$  3,256  09 

Aug. 

1889 

97 

5,000 

51-5 

4,098  09 

Aug. 

1891 

169 

9,014 

53-3 

8,103  69 

July 

1893 

200 

10,204 

5i.o 

8,in  41 

April 

1896 

July 

1897 

181 

5,683 

31-4 

2,389  oi 

July 

1899 

151 

6,217 

41.2 

14,134  12 

July 

1901 

202 

9,727 

48.1 

25,006  55 

July 

1903 

308 

14,496 

47.0 

46,417  05 

Jan. 

IQOS 

331 

16,000 

48.3 

32,503  49 

July 

1907 

327 

16,000 

49-1 

87,860  03 

July 

1909 

325 

13,000 

40.0 

56,423  66 

July     .  i 

1911 

310 

12,300 

39-7 

96,555  17 

Deficit 


688  86 


Balance 

per 
Capita 


$i  55 
82 
oo 
79 

42 

2  27 

2  57 

3  20 

2  03 

5  49 

4  34 
785 


2.     Variations  in  Total  Membership. 
The  reasons  given  for  the  variations  in  the  number  of 
local  unions  from  1883  to  ^97  aPply  with  equal  force  to  the 


some  time  after  the  panic  organizing  work  was  seriously 
handicapped.  In  the  two  years,  1894  and  1895,  only  $1,158.02  was  spent 
for  organizing  purposes,  as  compared  with  $2,401.15  in  the  single  year 
1896. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  101 

variations  in  total  membership  during  the  same  period.  The 
unusually  heavy  loss  of  membership  following  the  panic  was 
due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  loss  of  the  New  York  union, 
which  left  the  National  after  a  disastrous  strike  to  resist  a 
reduction  in  wages.  14°  In  1899  it  is  seen  that  there  was  a 
slight  recovery  of  membership,  although  the  number  of  local 
unions  had  continued  to  decrease.  This  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  weak  unions  continued  to  straggle  away, 
while  the  stronger  ones  were  beginning  to  recuperate.  Fol- 
lowing 1899  there  is  a  continuous  gain  until  1907.  During 
this  period  the  New  York  union  rejoined.  (September  i, 
1903.)  After  1907  there  is  a  decline,  for  the  same  reasons 
that  have  produced  decline  in  the  number  of  locals. 

3.  Variations  in  Average  Membership  per  Local.     For 
the  first  four  dates,  1883,  1884,  1885  and  1887,  the  averages 
do  not  accurately  describe  the  greater  number  of  the  local 
unions,  for  the  reason  that  on  each  of  those  dates  the  New 
York  union  alone  contained  in  the  neighborhood  of  half  the 
entire  membership.     After   1887,  this  discrepancy  is  not  so 
noticeable,  owing  to  the  larger  number  of  locals.     The    al- 
most complete  loss  of  the  New  York  union  between  1893  and 
1897,  coupled  with  the  general  demoralization  of  other  unions, 
produced  a  sharp  decline  in  the  average  membership.     After 
1897  the  average  recovers  again,  and    follows    closely    the 
changes  in  total  membership. 

4.  Variations  in  General  Fund.141     The  term  "General 
Fund,"  as  used  in  the  publications  of  the  National  Tailors' 
Union,  refers  to  the  balance  on  hand  at  any  given  date,  clear 

140 A  small  number  of  members  remained  affiliated  with  the  National 
Union  and  retained  the  charter,  but  the  majority  withdrew  and  later 
formed  a  new  association,  which  remained  independent  until  1903. 

14*The  figures  in  this  table  begin  with  the  earliest  accounts  that  can 
be  found  in  the  official  journal.  The  Tailor,  and  conclude  with  July  I,  1911, 
the  end  of  the  latest  fiscal  year.  The  same  is  true  of  all  financial  state- 
ments given  in  this  chapter. 


102  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

of  all  indebtedness.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  period 
from  1883  to  1911,  the  general  fund  was  maintained  as  a 
single  fund  from  which  all  kinds  of  expenses  of  the  National 
Union,  including  the  benefits  of  members,  were  to  be  paid. 
About  1891  an  attempt  was  made  to  maintain  four  separate 
funds, — an  organizing  fund,  a  funeral  fund,  a  strike  fund, 
and  a  general  fund,  but  this  was  found  impracticable,  and 
was  abandoned  soon  after  the  panic  of  1893.  A  deficit  is 
recorded  in  1896;  at  this  date  the  union  had  borrowed  money 
in  excess  of  its  assets. 

The  notable  fall  in  the  funds  following  the  panic  is  shown 
clearly  by  the  table.  The  other  main  fluctuations  occur  be- 
tween 1903  and  1905,  and  between  1907  and  1909.  The 
falling  off  in  funds  in  each  case  was  due  to  expensive  strikes. 
The  large  balances  shown  on  all  dates  after  1899  are  due  to 
increases  in  membership  and  in  the  monthly  dues.142 

TABLE  2. 

INCOME  AND  EXPENSE,  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS'  UNION  OF  AMERICA. 

1885-1911. 

Income.          ,  Expense. 
Oct.      i    i88s-Aug.  14,  1887  $    5,698.99        $    2,442.90 


Aug.  15 

Aug.  i 

Aug.  i 

July  i 

July  i 

July  i 

July  i 

July  i 

July  i 

Jan.  i 

July  i 

July  i 


i887-July   31,  1889  10,370.22  9,528.22 

1889- July    31,  1891  47,734.16  43,728.56 

i89i-June  30,  1893  76,566.11  76,558.49 

i893-June  30,  1895  64,312.45  71,056.94 

i895-June  30,  1897  45,313-84  44,291-75 

1897- June  30,  1899  45,266.22  33,576.97 

i899-June  30,  1901  73,229.00  62,300.71 

I90i-June  30,  1903  113,998.72  92,588.22 

1903-Dec.    31,  1904  (il/2  yr.)                      128,791.69  142,705.25 

1905-June  30,  1907  (2^    yr.)                       202,810.21  147,453.67 

1907-June  30,  1909  184,304.70  215,741.07 

1909-Jnne  30,  1911  197,255.92  157,124.41 


$1,195,652.23      $1,099,097.06 

Total   Income,  Oct.   i,   1885  to  June  30,    1911 $1,195,652.23 

Total  Expense,  Oct.   i,   1885  to  June  30,    1911 1,099,097.06 

Leaves  balance  in  general  fund,  June  30,  1911 $     96,555.17 

142For  details  of  changes  in  monthly  dues  and  other  sources  of  in- 
come,  see  notes  to  Table  2. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  103 

Table  2.    Income  and  Expense,  1885-1911. 

(a)  Source  and  Accuracy.     The  figures  for  the  table  of 
income  and  expense  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the 
General  Secretary  to  the  legislative  sessions  of  the  National 
Union.     These  figures  have  been  carefully  audited  and  are 
correct. 

(b)  Special  Notes. 

1.  The  regular  fiscal  period  of    the    Tailors'    National 
Union  is  two  years.     It  will  be  noticed  in  the  table  that  there 
is  a  slight  deviation  from  this  in  the  case  of  the  first,  second 
and  fourth  periods;    also  that  the  four  years  from  July  i, 
1903,  to  June  30,  1907,  is  divided  into  periods  of  1^2  and 
-2^/2  years,  instead  of  into  periods  of  two  years  each.     These 
deviations  are  due  to  the  shifting  of  the  date  specified  by 
the  constitution  for  the  general  audit,  and  should  be  taken 
into  account  by  the  reader  in  comparing  the  amounts  of  in- 
come and  expense  for  the  successive  periods. 

2.  Sources  of  income.    At  the  present  date  the  principal 
sources  of  income  are  initiation  fees  and  monthly  dues,  in- 
terest on  the  general  fund,  and  income  from  the  sale  of  sup- 
plies to  local  unions.     Levies  were   formally  an  important 
item,  but  have  now  been  replaced  largely  by  increased  monthly 
dues.     The   following  statement  shows  the  classification  of 
income  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  191 1,143 

INCOME  OF  THE  TAILORS'  NATIONAL  UNION, 
JULY  i,  1910 — JUNE  30,  1911. 

Initiation  fees  and  monthly  dues $  97,438.55 

Interest  on  general  fund 2,132.41 

Sale  of  supplies 1,109.40 

Miscellaneous 250.02 

Total    $100,930.38 

143 This  statement  is  taken  from  The  Tailor,  July,  1911,  p.  18. 


101 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


To  understand  the  variations  in  income  during  the  period 
covered  by  Table  2,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  history  of 
the  regulations  of  the  National  Union  on  the  subject  of  dues, 
levies  and  fees.  For  this  purpose  the  following  statements 
have  been  compiled,  showing  the  laws  as  found  in  the  suc- 
cessive constitutions  of  the  Union. 


LAWS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS'  UNION  OF  AMERICA, 
FEES  AND  MONTHLY  DUES.! 


Const. 

In  force. 

1883 

Aug., 

i883-Aug., 

1884 

18842 

Aug., 

1  884-  Aug., 

1885 

1885 

Aug., 

i885-Aug., 

1887 

1887 

Aug., 

i887-Aug., 

1889 

1889 

Aug., 

3i889-Jan. 

1892 

18924 

Jan.  i 

1892-  Jan. 

1894 

1894 

Jan. 

i894-Aug. 

1895 

i8955 
1896 

Aug. 
Apr. 

i8Q5-Apr. 
i896-Jan. 

1806 
1898 

1898 

Jan. 

i898-Jan. 

1900 

1900 

Jan. 

1900-Jan. 

1902 

1902 

Jan. 

1  902-  Jan. 

1904 

1904 

Jan. 

1904-July 

1905 

1005 

July 

1905-Jan. 

1908 

1908 

Jan.   i 

I9o8-Jan.  i 

1910 

1910 

Jan.   i 

1910 

Init. 

Reinst. 

Charter 

Mo. 

fee\. 

fee. 

fee. 

dues. 

$  .05 

.10 

None 

None 

$  S.oo 

.10 

None 

None 

5-00 

.10 

$1.00 

$1.00 

8.00 

.25 

I.OO 

I.OO 

8.00 

.25 

1.  00 

2.00 

10.00 

.30 

.00 

2.OO 

IO.OO 

.30 

.00 

2.OO 

IO.OO 

.30 

.00 

2.00 

10.00 

•35 

.00 

2.OO 

10.00 

•35 

.00 

2.0O 

IO.OO 

.40 

.00 

5.00 

IO.OO 

.40 

54 

loc.  fee 

3-00 

None 

•45 

V2 

loc.  fee 

3-00 

None 

•456 

I.OO 

3.00 

None 

.65 

(1)  The  fees  and  monthly  dues  as  given  in  this  table  are  the  amounts 
payable  to  the   National  Union.     In  addition   each  member  is   re- 
quired  to  pay  local   fees  and  local  dues.     Reinstatement   fees   are 
required  of  members  who  become  suspended  for  non-payment  of 
dues,  and  who  want  to  reenter  the  union.   Under  the  present  consti- 
tution   (1910)   the  local  initiation  fee  is  $1.00  in  all  local   unions; 
the  local  reinstatement  fee  is  $3.00;  there  is  no  local  charter  fee; 
the  local  dues  are  set  by  the  constitution  of  each  local  union,  but 
cannot  be  less  than  twenty  cents  a  month. 

(2)  At  date  of  writing  this  article  the  texts  of  the  1883  and  1884  con- 
stitutions are  not  available.     The  provisions  as  to  dues  have  been 
ascertained   from  the  former  secretary. 

(3)  The  1889  constitution  went  into  effect  August  17,  1889,  except  the 
clauses  on  funeral  benefit  and  organizing  levies,  which  went   into 
effect  January  i,  1890. 

(4))  The  first  five  constitutions,  1883,  1884,  1885,  1887,  and  1889,  were 
dated  the  same  as  the  convention  years,  because  each  of  these 
constitutions  went  into  effect  before  the  close  of  the  convention 
year.  All  later  constitutions  went  into  effect  the  first  of  January 
following  the  convention  or  committee  meeting,  and  are  dated  ac- 
cordingly, with  three  exceptions:  (i)  The  1895  constitution  went 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  105 

into  effect  August  i,  1895,  following  the  adoption  of  certain  amend- 
ments submitted  to  a  general  vote  by  the  General  Executive  Board 
(2)  The  1896  constitution  went  into  effect  April  I,  1896,  following 
the  adoption  of  further  amendments  submitted  by  the  Board.  (3) 
The  1905  constitution  went  into  effect  July  I,  1905,  following  a 
convention  held  in  February  instead  of  in  August  as  usual. 

(5)  The  constitution  of   1895  is   not  published  in  book  form,  but  can 
be   found  in  The  Tailor,  August,   1895,  pp.   I-.7 

(6)  The  1908  constitution  provides  that  dues  shall  be  45  cents  a  month 
until  July  I,  1908,  when  they  shall  be  raised  to  60  cents  a  month, 
on   account  of  the  adoption  of  a  sick  benefit. 

LAWS  OF  THE;  JOURNEYMEN  TAILORS'  UNION  OF  AMERICA. 
LEVIES  AND  SPECIAL  ASSESSMENTS. 

Const.1  Provisions  for  Levies  and  Assessments. 

1883  (Constitution  not  available.) 

1884  (Constitution  not  available.) 

(i)     The  period  during  which  the  successive  constitutions  were  in 
force  has  been  given  in  the  preceding  table  and  is  not  repeated  here. 

1885  (i)   A  special  levy  may  be  declared,  if  necessary, 

by  authority  of  the  General  Executive  Board; 
not  to  exceed  50  cents  per  member  in  any  one 
quarter. 

(2)  In  case  of  long-continued  strikes,  additional 
levies  can  be  declared  by  a  majority  vote  of 
the  general  membership. 

1887  Same  as  1885. 

1889  (i)  In  case  of  danger  of  deficiency  in  the  general 
fund,  Executive  Board  may  levy  assessment  of 
10  cents  per  member  against  local  union  treas- 
uries, but  not  more  than  twice  in  any  three 
consecutive  months. 

(2)  Special  strike  levy,  not  to  exceed  50  cents  per 
member,  can  be  declared  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  general  membership. 

(3)  Special  convention  levy,  to  assist  in  payment  of 
mileage  of  delegates,  can  be  declared  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  general  membership. 


106  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Const.  Provisions  for  Levies  and  Assessments.  (Con.) 

(4)   Regular  levy  for  organizing  purposes,  50  cents 

per  member,  to  be  paid  annually. 

1892         (i)    10  cent  assessment  by  Executive  Board,  same 
as  1889. 

(2)  Special  strike  levy,  same  as  1889. 

(3)  Special  convention  levy,  same  as  1889. 

(4)  Regular  organizing  levy,  5  cents  per  member 
per  month. 

1894  Provisions    (i),    (2),   and    (3)    of     1892,    re- 
enacted.    (4),  organizing  levy,  repealed. 

1895  Same  as  1894. 

1896  Same  as  1894. 

1898         (i)    10  cent  assessment  by  Executive  Board,  as  be- 
fore. 

(2)  Special  organizing    assessments    by    Executive 
Board,  not  to  exceed  50  cents  a  year. 

(3)  Two  regular  annual  25  cent  levies,  to  be  paid 
by  each  member  on  May  i  and  November  i ; 
to  be   discontinued    when    the    general     fund 
reaches  $10,000. 

(4)  Special  strike  levy,  not  to  exceed  50  cents  per 
member,  by  majority  vote  of  general  member- 
ship.    (Formerly  two-thirds  vote.) 

(5)  Special  convention  levy,  by  majority  vote    of 
general    membership.       (Formerly    two-thirds 
vote.) 

1900  Provisions   (i),    (4)    and     (5)    of     1898,    re- 

enacted. 

(2)  Special  organizing  assessments,  repealed. 

(3)  Two  annual  levies  as  in   1898,  but  not  to    be 
discontinued  until  fund  reaches  $30,000. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  107 

Const.  Provisions  for  Levies  and  Assessments.  (Con.) 

1902         (i)    10  cent  assessment  by  Executive  Board,  as  be- 
fore. 

(2)  Special  strike  levy,  as  before. 

(3)  Special  convention  levy,  to  be  declared  by  Exe- 
cutive Board  in  case  the  membership  vote    to 
have  a  convention. 

1904  (i)   One  annual  25  cent  levy,  to  be  paid  by  each 

member  on  October  i ;  to  be  discontinued  when 
the  general  fund  reaches  $5.00  per  member. 

(2)  Special  strike  levy,  as  before. 

(3)  In  case  of  a  strike  lasting  more  than  six  weeks, 
the   Executive  Board  may   at  their  discretion 
raise  the  strike  benefit    50    cents  a  day.     To 
provide  funds  for  this  purpose  the  Board  may 
if  necessary  declare  a  levy  of  25  cents  on  each 
member  of  the  National  Union,  payable  at  once 
from  the  treasuries  of  the  local  unions ;    the 
local  unions  to  reimburse  their  treasuries    by 
collecting  the  levy  from  the  members. 

1905  (i)   Two  25  cent  levies,  annual,  payable  May  i  and 

October   i,  to    be  discontinued    when  general 
fund  reaches  $100,000. 

(2)  Special  strike  levy,  not  to  exceed  50  cents  per 
member,  to  be  declared  by  Executive  Board 
when  necessary,  without  a  general  vote.  (For- 
merly majority  vote  of  general  membership  re- 
quired.)* 
1908  Provisions  (i)  and  (2),  same  as  1905. 

Note.  The  10  cent  assessment  and  special  convention  levy  are  re- 
pealed in  1904.  and  do  not  appear  in  any  later  constitution.  Expense 
of  organizing  work  and  mileage  of  delegates  are  paid  from  general 
fund,  without  special  assessments. 


108  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Const.  Provisions  for  Levies  and  Assessments.  (Con.) 

1910         (i)   Special  emergency  or  strike  levy,  not  to    ex- 
ceed 50  cents  per  member  per  month,  to  be  de- 
clared by  Executive  Board  without  a  general 
vote. 
(All  other  levies  repealed.) 

3.  Classification  of  Expense.  Undoubtedly  the  greatest 
single  item  of  expense,  when  the  whole  period  is  considered^ 
has  been  the  strike  benefit.  As  shown  in  a  following  table, 
the  strike  benefit  from  August  15,  1887  to  July  i,  1911, 
amounted  to  $378,508.31,  or  a  little  over  one-third  of  the 
total  expense  for  the  same  period. 

The  following  statement  shows  classification  of  expense 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  191 1.144 

Organizing  expenses $24,165.40 

Sick  benefits    21,256.35 

Death  benefits    10,870.75 

The  Tailor,  printing  and  shipping.  .  4,363.08 

Strike  benefits 4,330.00 

Office  salaries    3,856.00 

Stationery  and    supplies    for    local 

unions  and  for  the  general  office.  2,739.82 

Miscellaneous  items    5,364.04 


Total  expense $76,945.44 

Note.  Under  ''Miscellaneous  Items"  are  included  small  bills,  such 
as  rent,  postage,  telegrams,  etc.,  and  also  the  following  larger  items : 
dues  to  American  Federation  of  Labor,  and  Canada  Labor  Congress ; 
services  General  Executive  Board;  services  of  delegates  to  American 
Federation  of  Labor ;  salary  General  Treasurer ;  attorney's  fees,  and 
premiums  on  bonds  of  general  officers. 

344This  statement  is  taken  from  The  Tailor,  July,  1911,  p.  18. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


109 


Nature   of 

Date. 

Place 

Session. 

Convention 

Aug.,        1883 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Convention 

Aug.  n,  1884 

Chicago,  111. 

Convention 

Aug.  10,  1885 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Convention 

Aug.    8,  1887 

New  York,  N.Y. 

Convention 

Aug.  12,  1889 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Convention 

Aug.     3,  1891 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Convention 

Aug.     7,  1893 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Committee 

Aug.    2,  18972 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

Aug.    7,  1899 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

Aug.     5,  1901 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

Aug.    3,  1903 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

Jan.    30,  1905 

Bloomington,  111. 

Convention 

Feb.    6,  1905 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

Aug.    5,  1907 

Bloomington,  111. 

Committee 

July  26,  1909 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Convention 

Aug.    2,  1909 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

TABLE  3. 

LEGISLATIVE  SESSIONS  OF  THE  JOURNEYMEN   TAILORS'  UNION 
OF  AMERICA. 

Reference  to 
Proceedings.1 

Pub.  (N.Y.,  1884) 
Pub.  (N.Y.,  1885) 

Tailor,  Oct.,  1887 

Tailor,  Sept.,  1889 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1891 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1893 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1897 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1899 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1901 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1903 

Tailor,  Feb.,  1905 

Tailor,  Feb.,  1905 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1907 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1909 

Tailor,  Aug.,  1909 

1  The  writer  has  not  as  yet  been  able  to  secure  complete  proceed- 
ings of  the  1883  convention. 

2  The  vote  of  the  membership  in  1895  was   adverse  to  holding  a 
convention,  so  that  there  was  a  period  of  four  years,  1893-1897,  without 
any  regular  legislative  session. 

Table  5.    Legislative  Sessions. 

Special  Notes.  The  1883,  1884  and  1885  constitutions  of 
the  Tailors'  National  Union  were  adopted  by  the  conventions 
of  those  dates,  and  were  not  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  whole 
membership.  The  1887  constitution,  as  adopted  by  the  con- 
vention of  that  year,  was  submitted  as  a  unit  to  a  general 
vote,  and  was  approved.  The  1889  constitution  was  not  sub- 
mitted to  a  general  vote,  with  the  exception  of  certain  prop- 
ositions to  levy  an  assessment  for  organizing  purposes,  and 
to  establish  a  funeral  benefit.  These  propositions  were  sub- 
mitted to  a  vote  of  the  membership,  and  were  carried.  The 
balance  of  the  1889  constitution  went  into  effect  by  the  action 
of  the  convention  alone.  The  constitution  of  1891,  as 
adopted  by  the  convention,  was  submitted  as  a  unit  to  the 
membership,  and  was  carried.  The  convention  of  1893 


110  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

adopted  certain  amendments  to  the  1891  constitution,  which 
were  then  submitted  to  the  membership  as  separate  numbered 
propositions.  The  propositions  which  were  carried  were  then 
incorporated  in  the  constitution  of  1893.  All  future  consti- 
tutions were  amended  by  this  method  of  submitting  to  a  vote 
of  the  general  membership  the  separate  constitutional  changes 
as  approved  by  the  convention  or  other  legislative  session. 
The  body  submitting  amendments  has  not  always  been  a  con- 
vention. The  General  Executive  Board,  acting  under  con- 
stitutional authority,  has  frequently  sent  out  amendments  for 
a  general  vote,  and  on  one  occasion  (1896),  virtually  took 
the  place  of  a  convention,  sending  out  a  number  of  proposi- 
tions, some  of  which  were  carried  and  embodied  in  the  con- 
stitution of  1896.  One  of  these  propositions  adopted  in  1896 
made  an  important  change  in  the  legislative  machinery.  Pre- 
viously it  had  been  the  custom  to  send  out  a  circular  every 
two  years,  calling  for  a  general  vote  on  the  question  as  to 
whether  a  convention  should  be  held.  If  the  vote  was  ad- 
verse there  was  no  convention,  and  no  provision  was  made 
for  any  regular  legislative  session  until  another  two  years 
had  passed,  when  the  vote  could  be  taken  again.  If  the  vote 
was  favorable  the  convention  met  and  revised  the  laws.  In 
those  years  that  the  convention  met,  it  was  provided  that  a 
Committee  of  five  members  should  be  appointed,  known  as 
the  Committee  on  Laws  and  Audit,  to  meet  just  before  the 
convention.  This  Committee  was  required  to  audit  the  books 
of  the  general  officers,  to  examine  proposed  amendments  to 
the  constitution,  and  to  make  a  report  to  the  convention.  By 
the  amendment  of  1896,  the  Committee  on  Laws  and  Audit 
was  to  be  appointed  in  years  when,  by  reason  of  an  adverse 
vote,  the  convention  did  not  meet,  as  well  as  in  those  years 
when  it  did.  When  there  was  no  convention  the  Committee 
was  empowered  to  consider  amendments  proposed,  and  to 
make  recommendations  and  submit  propositions  to  a  general 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  HI 

vote,  just  as  the  convention  would  have  done  if  it  had  been 
in  session.  The  Committee  was  also  to  audit  the  books,  and 
to  make  a  report  to  the  membership  through  the  official  Jour- 
nal. This  system  of  optional  conventions,  to  be  replaced  by 
Committees  when  desired,  prevailed  with  some  modifications 
until  1909.  Later  amendments  made  the  membership  of  the 
Committee  twelve  instead  of  five,  and  set  the  optional  con- 
vention period  at  four  years  instead  of  two,  the  Committee, 
however,  to  meet  every  two  years,  whether  the  convention 
met  or  not.  It  is  seen  from  the  table  that  for  twelve  years, 
from  1893  to  I9°5>  there  was  no  convention,  the  legislative 
work  being  done  in  1896  by  the  General  Executive  Board, 
and  after  that  by  Committees.  In  1909  the  law  was  made 
mandatory  so  as  to  require  the  holding  of  a  convention  every 
four  years.  The  services  of  the  Committee  before  conven- 
tions are  retained,  but  the  Committee  meetings  between  con- 
ventions are  abolished.  The  next  convention  will  be  held  in 


II.    Strikes  and  Lockouts. 
Definitions. 

(a)  Strikes.    The  term  "strike"  is  familiar,  and  scarcely 
requires  definition.     In  general  a  strike  implies  that  the  initi- 
ative in  the  dispute  leading  to  a  cessation  of  work  is  taken 
by  the  workmen. 

(b)  Lockouts.     The  term   "lockout"   is  used  somewhat 
indiscriminately  in  the  tailoring  trade,  to  indicate  any  of  the 
following  situations  : 

(  i  )    All  union  members  discharged,  and  declaration  made 
that  no  unionists  will  be  employed. 

(2)  One  or  more  unionists  discharged,    on    account    of 
special  activity  in  the  union. 

(3)  Unionists   permitted  to   remain   at  work,   provided 
they  will  bargain  as  individuals  ;    employers  refuse  to  sign 
any  agreement  with  union. 


112  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

The  question  as  to  whether  a  disturbance  is  a  strike  or 
a  lockout  has  come  up  in  connection  with  the  applications  of 
local  unions  to  the  General  Executive  Board  for  support. 
In  such  cases  the  first  situation  named  has  always  been  rec- 
ognized as  a  lockout.  The  second  case  might  be  regarded  as 
a  partial  lockout,  but  it  is  more  usual  to  refer  to  the  members 
discharged  as  "victimized."  While  recognizing  that  "victim- 
ized" members  have  a  grievance,  the  union  has  not  as  a  rule 
demanded  their  reinstatement  by  the  employer,  but  has  simply 
aided  such  members  from  the  strike  benefit  until  they  could 
get  work  elsewhere.  As  to  the  third  case,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  nearly  equivalent  to  the  first,  as  the  employers  know  that 
as  a  rule  the  members  will  not  work  under  these  conditions. 
However,  technically  speaking,  it  is  better  to  regard  a  dis- 
turbance growing  out  of  this  case  as  a  strike  for  enforcing 
the  system  of  collective  bargaining,  rather  than  as  a  lockout. 

Closely  connected  with  the  situations  named  above  are 
those  where  the  employers  refuse  to  employ  unionists  under 
any  circumstances,  or  where  they  demand  an  agreement  from 
prospective  employees  that  they  will  not  join  a  union.  These 
are  to  be  regarded  as  phases  of  the  "black-list." 

If  the  above  distinctions  are  followed,  the  greater  part  of 
the  important  controversies  that  have  taken  place  in  the  tail- 
oring trade  can  be  brought  under  the  head  of  "strikes." 

General  Strike  Policy  of  the  Tailors'  National  Union. 

From  the  very  beginning  it  has  been  the  policy  of  the 
National  Union  to  maintain  centralized  control  of  strikes. 
The  principal  aid  to  maintaining  this  kind  of  control  is  the 
fact  that  the  strike  benefit  fund  is  governed  by  the  National 
Union.  Before  granting  support  to  any  local  union  it  has 
been  customary  to  make  the  following  requirements : 

(i)  A  genuine  effort  must  be  made  by  the  local  union 
to  settle  the  controversy  by  negotiation  with  the  employers, 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  118 

before  calling  a  strike.  If  such  negotiation  fails,  a  secret 
vote  of  the  union  is  to  be  taken  as  to  whether  the  members 
involved  shall  be  called  out  and  supported,  a  two-thirds  vote 
to  decide. 

(2)  Before  any  strike  is  actually  begun,  full  information 
must  be  sent  to  headquarters,  indicating  the  cause  of  diffi- 
culty;   the  number  of  members  likely  to  be  involved;     the 
likelihood  of  all  such  members  responding  to  a  strike  call, 
if  it  is  ordered;   the  condition  of  trade,  and  the  prospects  of 
success.    No  members  must  be  called  out  until  permission  has 
been  received  from  the  General  Executive  Board.     Failure 
to  observe  this  provision  debars  the  local  union  from  the  re- 
ceipt of  benefit,  and  any  strike  undertaken  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  Executive  Board  must  be  carried  on  at  the  risk 
and  expense  of  the  local  union. 

(3)  As  a  rule  the  union  is  requested  to  delay  radical 
action  and  to  keep  the  members  at  work  until  a  representative 
of  the  National  Union  can  be  sent  to  the  city  to  endeavor  to 
secure  a  settlement.     Many  strikes  have  been  avoided  in  this 
way,  and  the  services  of  the  national  organizers  in  helping 
to  settle  local  controversies  are  fully  as  important  as  their 
strictly  organizing  duties. 

The  essentials  of  the  policy  outlined  above  may  be  found 
in  the  earliest  constitutions  of  the  National  Union,145  and 
with  some  modifications  have  been  continued  to  the  present 
date. 

Causes  of  Strikes.     Specific  Union  Policies. 

(a)  Strikes  to  resist  reduction  in  wages.  It  has  been 
the  uniform  policy  of  the  National  Union  to  resist  reductions 
whenever  offered.  There  has  been  no  deviation  from  this 
policy  except  during  times  of  extreme  industrial  depression. 
In  resisting  reductions  the  union  has  met  with  a  very  high 

i45See  in  Appendix  B  to  Chapter  3,  the  By-laws  of  1885,  Articles 
11-15- 


114  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

degree  of  success,  and  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  accept 
very  few  reductions,  except  during  panic  times. 

(b)  Strikes  for  increase  of  wages.     Considerable  dis- 
cretion has  been  exercised  by  the  Executive    Board    in    the 
matter  of  supporting  demands  for  increased  wages.     It  has 
been  their  rule  for  a  number  of  years  to  require  from  local 
unions  desiring  to  raise  their  price-bills  a  copy  of  the  bill 
already  paid,  as  well  as  a  copy  of  the  bill  which  it  is  desired 
to  present  to  the  employers,  so  that  the  Board  can  see  directly 
the  amount  of  the  increase  demanded.    The  Board  has  never 
placed  obstacles  in  the  way  of  any  local  union's  obtaining  as 
large  an  increase  as  possible  by  peaceable  negotiations,  but 
when  it  has  been  evident  that  a  strike  would  be  necessary, 
the  Board  has  usually  required  that  the  local  union  should 
not  demand  more  than  a  ten  per  cent  increase ;   and  the  locals 
have  been  strongly  urged  to  accept  a  compromise  of  less  than 
this  amount,  rather  than  to  strike.     This  policy  has  been  fol- 
lowed quite  consistently,  with  the  result  that  a  very  large 
part  of  the  demands  made  by  local  unions  have  been  settled 
on  a  satisfactory  basis  without  strikes.     Where  strikes  have 
been  necessary,  a  large  per  cent  have  succeeded,  and,  as    a 
rule,  the  gains  made  have  been  permanent. 

(c)  Strikes  to  enforce  a  union  shop.     It  is  well  known 
that  many  unionists  desire  to  enforce  the  rule  that  all  em- 
ployees  of  establishments   shall  be  members  of  the  unions, 
and  that  unionists  shall  not  work  with  non-unionists.     The 
tailors  have  supported  this  principle  as  firmly  as  any  other 
trade,  but  have  not  always   insisted  that  it  should  be    em- 
bodied in  their  wage  contracts.     There  has  been  a  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  general  officers  toward  conservatism    in 
this  matter.    It  has  been  felt  that  while  a  demand  for  a  union 
shop  contract  was  legitimate,  in  case  an  employer  was  will- 
ing to  sign  it,  nevertheless  the  strike  and  the  boycott  should 
not  be  used  to  enforce  this  demand;    this  principally  on  ac- 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  115 

count  of  the  strong  feeling  in  the  public  mind  that  if  the 
union  reserved  the  right  of  its  members  to  quit  work  at  will 
the  employer  should  be  conceded  the  right  to  employ  at 
will.146  It  was  then  the  business  of  the  union  to  get  the 
employees  organized,  if  they  could.  There  have  been,  there- 
fore, many  contracts  signed  between  tailors  and  their  em- 
ployers which  make  no  mention  of  the  employment  of  union 
members  only.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  unions  have  re- 
served the  right  to  cease  working  for  an  establishment  if 
new  employees  refuse  to  join,  and  this  position  has  ordinarily 
been  sustained  by  the  General  Executive  Board.  It  should 
be  understood  that  the  union  regulations  with  respect  to  these 
matters  have  come  to  be  customary  in  the  trade,  and  in  a 
majority  of  cases  are  observed  by  employees  coming  into 
union  shops  without  any  strike  being  necessary. 

(d)  Strikes  to  enforce  a  system  of  collective  bargaining. 
Some  of  the  most  serious  conflicts  in  the  tailoring  trade  have 
arisen  from  the  demands  of  employers  that  the  workers  in 
their  employ  should  bargain  as  individuals.  Sometimes  the 
presentation  of  a  new  scale  of  prices  by  the  men  has  been 
made  the  pretext  for  a  demand  of  this  kind.  The  unions 
have  invariably  refused  to  abandon  the  principle  of  collective 
bargaining,  and  in  most  cases  the  employers  have  given  up 
their  demands  and  made  a  settlement  with  the  union  com- 
mittees, although  sometimes  long  and  expensive  strikes  were 
necessary  before  this  result  was  secured. 

(e)  Strikes  against  home  work  and  in  favor  of  free 
shops.  The  agitation  against  home  work  has  been  very 
strong  in  the  tailoring  trade,  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
general  officers  of  the  union.  During  the  early  years  of  the 
official  Journal,  beginning  with  1887,  there  was  scarcely  an 
issue  that  did  not  contain  vigorous  articles  or  editorials  by 

i46Recent  large  strikes  for  enforcing  a  union  shop,  e.g.,  Toronto, 
appear  to  indicate  some  change  in  this  policy. 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

the  general  secretary  on  this  subject.  The  net  result  of  the 
movement  to  secure  the  free  shops  was  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  number  of  members  working  in  such  shops.  It  was 
not  possible,  however,  to  make  the  free  shop  system  universal 
all  over  the  country.  The  situation  is  well  expressed  by  the 
Secretary  in  his  report  to  the  1905  Convention: 

"While  the  piece  system  of  work  so  largely  prevails  in 
our  trade,  it  appears  as  though  it  will  be  almost  impossible 
to  completely  enforce  the  free  shop  system,  and  this  more 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  journeymen  tailors,  than 
from  the  opposition  of  the  employers.  To  work  at  home 
gives  the  journeyman  tailor  an  opportunity  to  work  for  sev- 
eral different  establishments,  and  they  believe  as  a  rule  that 
this  is  an  advantage  to  them,  and  believing  that,  it  is  almost 
an  impossibility  to  persuade  or  force  every  one  into  the  free 
shops."147 

Strikes  arising  out  of  the  question  of  the  free  shops  have 
taken  two  forms :  ( i )  Strikes  to  oblige  employers  to  furnish 
free  shops.  (2)  Strikes  to  oblige  members  to  work  in  the 
free  shops  after  they  have  been  secured.  The  details  of  all 
such  strikes  can  not  be  given  here ;  the  results  were  as  noted 
above. 

(f)  Strikes  against  the  change  of  system.  In  the  chap- 
ter on  present  conditions  in  the  trade  it  was  noted  that  there 
is  a  continuous  tendency  on  the  part  of  employers  to  in- 
augurate systems  of  cheaper  production.  Such  systems  have 
usually  meant  that  all  or  part  of  the  skilled  journeymen 
would  be  thrown  out  of  work,  and  the  journeymen  have 
naturally  objected  strongly  to  such  changes.  Strikes  for  the 
purpose  of  resisting  changes  in  the  system  of  production 
have  been  the  least  successful  strikes  in  the  trade.  It  has 
become  the  policy  of  the  National  Union  not  to  support  such 
strikes,  as  long  as  there  is  any  possibility  of  securing  an  agree- 

i47Tailor,  Aug.,  1905,  p.  7. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  117 

ment  between  the  employers  and  the  journeymen  for  the 
government  of  the  new  system  after  it  is  started.  It  is  not 
always  possible  to  reemploy  all  the  journeymen,  but  fre- 
quently some  of  them  can  be  reemploy  ed,  and  this  is  consid- 
ered better,  provided  union  conditions  can  be  had,  than  a 
strike. 

The  list  of  causes  enumerated  above  does  not,  of  course, 
include  all  possible  causes  of  strikes  in  the  tailoring  trade, 
but  it  includes  the  most  important  ones. 

TABLE  4. 
STRIKE  BENEFIT  REGULATIONS,  1884-1910. 

Sir.  ben.  Str.  bem,. 

per  ivk.,  per  wk., 

Const.          In  forced                Str.  ben.  begins:            ist6wks.  afterdzvks. 

1883  1883-18842 

1884  1884-1885                                                           $6.00  $6.00 

1885  1885-1887                8th    day   of    strike                4.00  4.00 
1887           1887-1889                8th    day   of    strike                4.00  4.00 
1889          1889-1891                8th    day   of   strike                5.00  5.00 
1892           1892-1893                8th    day    of    strike                6.00  6.00 

1894  1894-1895  8th  day  of  strike  6.00  6.00 

1895  1895-1896  8th  day  of  strike  6.00  6.00 

1896  1896-1897  8th  day  of  strike  6.oo3  6.oo3 
1898  1898-1899  8th  day  of  strike  6.00*  6.00* 
1900  1900-1901  5th  day  of  strike  6.oo5  6.oo5 
1902  1902-1903  5th  day  of  strike  6.oo6  6.00^ 

1904  1904-1905  5th  day  of  strike  6.00  6.0O7 

1905  1905-1907  5th  day  of  strike8  6.00  9.008 
1908  1908-1909  ist  day  of  strike™  6.00  9.00 
1910  1910-  ist  day  of  strike11  6.00  9.00 

1  For  exact  dates  see  taible  of  regulations  respecting  fees  and  monthly 
dues,  page  114. 

2  The   constitution    of    1883    is   not   available. 

3  "Except  during  the  months  of  January,   February,  July  and  August 
of  each  year,  during  which  months  strike  or  lockout  benefits  shall 
be  four  dollars  per  week."     (Constitution  of  1896,  Sec.  48.) 

4  Except  four  months,  same  as    1896. 

5  Except   in  January,   February,  July  and  August,  when  benefit   shall 
be  $4.50  per  week.     (Constitution  of  1900,  Sec.   54). 

6  Applies    the    year    around ;     former    exceptions    repealed. 

7  After  a  strike  hais  been  on  six  weeks,  the  General  Executive  Board 
shall   have  power   at   their  discretion   to   raise   the  strike  benefit  to 
$9.00  per  week,  and  to  levy  for  this  purpose  if  necessary  a  special 
assessment   of    25    cents    on    each    member   of    the    National   Union. 
(Constitution  of   1904,   Sec.  63.) 


118 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


10 


ii 


"In  case  of  any  strike  or  lockout  involving  50  per  cent  or  more  of 
the  members  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of  America,  no 
strike  benefit  shall  be  paid  for  the  first  four  weeks"  (Constitution 
of  1905,  Sec.  78.)  The  same  provision  is  found  in  the  1908  and 
1910  constitutions. 

Qualifications  in  1904  constitution  removed;  regular  benefit  is 
now  $9.00  per  week  for  each  member  involved,  after  the  strike  has 
been  on  for  six  weeks. 

But  if   strike   is   settled   within   four   days    from   the  beginning,   no 
benefit  shall  be  paid.     If  strike  lasts  more  than  four  days,  benefit 
shall  be  paid  from  the  first  day. 
Qualifications   same  as  in   1908. 


TABLE  5. 

EXPENDITURE  FOR  ORGANIZING  PURPOSES,  STRIKE  BENEFITS,  DEATH  BENEFITS,  AND  SICK 

BENEFITS. 


Period. 

Org. 

Strike. 

Death. 

Sick. 

Aug. 

15,  1887,  to  Aug.  i,  1889  (23.5  mo.)  .  . 

$  1,171.40 

$  3,438.00 

$  

$  

Aug. 

i,  1889,  to  Aug.  i,  1891  (2  yrs.).... 

3,793.85 

14,683.01 

ii  250  oo 

Aug. 

i,  1891,  to  July  i,  1893   (23  mo.).... 

7,953.64 

24,369.25 

29,300  oo 

Ttilv 

1893,  to  July  i    1895   (2  yrs.)  

1,765.91 

27.485  os 

26  O4^  40 

Tulv 

1895,  to  July  i    1897  (2  yrs.)  

4,108.95 

12,565.95 

138^285 

Tulv 

1897,  to  July  i    1899  (  2yrs.)  

9,186.14 

4,371.00 

9,298.40 

Tulv 

1899,  to  July  i    1901   (2  yrs.)  

8,912.18 

28,463  2; 

10  716  19 

July 

1901,  to  July  i    1903  (2  yrs.)  

16  008  32 

74  262  ^0 

m  712  40 

Tulv 

1903,  to  Jan.  i    1905   (il/2  yrs.).... 

17,777  71 

84  842  A< 

13  678  oo 

Jan. 

1905,  to  July  I    1907   (2.5  yrs.)  

33,998.32 

31,874.50 

31,  133.  50 

Tnlv 

1907,  to  July  I    1909  (2  yrs.)  

30  043  88 

QC  8l7  3=; 

22  ICK  63 

30  056  oc 

Tuly 

1909,  to  July  i    1911    (2  yrs  ) 

4O  ^74  31 

ii  336  oo 

-7T    Tog  7C 

43  41^  QC 

Totals,  Aug.  15,  1887,  to  July  i,  1911: 

For  organizing  purposes    $177,054.61 

For   strike   benefits    , 373,508.31 

For  death  benefits  203,921.12 

For  sick  benefits    73,468.90 

N.  B—  Payment  of  death  benefit  began  April  i,  1890;    of  sick  benefit,  Jan.  i,  1908 


Strike  Benefit  Regulations. 

Table  4.  Strike  Benefit  Regulations,  1884-1910.  The 
abstract  in  this  table  is  taken  from  the  successive  constitutions 
of  the  National  Union.  The  table  shows  the  amount  of 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


119 


strike  benefit  per  week  paid  to  each  member  involved  in  a 
strike  which  has  been  authorized  by  the  General  Executive 
Board.  It  is  seen  that  the  strike  benefit  since  1905  has  been 
exceptionally  liberal,  being  $1.50  a  day  or  $9.00  a  week  for 
each  member,  after  a  strike  has  been  on  more  than  six  weeks. 

Table  5.  Expenditure  for  Organizing  Purposes,  Strike 
Benefits,  Death  Benefits,  and  Sick  Benefits. 

The  figures  in  this  table  are  taken  from  the  reports  of 
the  General  Secretary  to  the  Conventions  and  Committees  of 
the  National  Union.  The  primary  purpose  in  submitting 
them  at  this  point  is  to  enable  the  reader  to  compare  strike 
benefit  with  the  other  leading  objects  of  expenditure  by  the 
Tailors'  Union. 

TABLE  6. 
STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS  IN  THE  TAILORING  TRADE,  1881 — 1911. 


Period 

Number  of 
Strikes 

Won  or 
Compromised 

4-> 
•J-. 

2 

Members 
Involved  | 

Members 
Benefited  | 

Members 
Not  Benefited 

•c 

<u 

MH     > 

0*0 

^ 

£<-c~-, 

*££ 

<u   <u  O 

PnMH 

National 
Strike 
Benefit  Paid 

Jan    i    1881  —  Dec  31    1886 

-jc 

23 

T° 

2476 

1886 

CQO 

175  8 

\ug    i^    1887  —  Tulv  3i.  1880.. 

40 

3C 

e 

$3  4?8  OO 

A.ug      i    1889  —  July  31    1891 

2IQ 

18; 

11 

14  683  01 

Ati0"     i    1891  —  June  30    1893 

I  CQ 

I^C 

TS 

24  ?6o  2  5 

Tulv  i    180^  —  Tune  30    189^.. 

27,48^.0=; 

July  i    1895  —  June  30    1897 

12  ^6";  9=; 

July  i    1897  —  June  30    1899 

4.O 

-27 

7 

126^ 

T^l6 

47 

96  3 

4,371.00 

July  i    1899  —  June  30    1901  

78 

72 

18/16 

1423 

423 

77.  0 

28,463.2^ 

July  i    1901  —  June  30    1903 

113 

n? 

o 

186^ 

IA  262  ^O 

Tulv    I     IQO"?  —  All0"     ?I     IQO3 

9,014.00 

Sept.   i    1903  —  Aug.  31,  1904  
Sept.        1904—  Aug.  31,  1905.... 
Sept.        1905—  Aug.  31,  1906  
Sept.        1906—  Aug.  31,  1907  
Sept         1907  —  Au0"    31    1908 

24 

22 

16 

22 
21 

18 
16 
14 
19 
16 

6 
6 

2 

3 
5 

1142 
641 
800 
1810 

4OO 

MO 
397 
735 
1400 

802 
244 

65 
410 

29.8 
61.9 
91.9 

77-3 

44,315.00 

11,414.00 
9,676.50 
21,275.00 
78,613.85 

Sept.        1908  —  Aug.  31,  1909  
Sept.        1909—  Aug.  31,  1910  
Sept.        1910—  Aug.  31,  1911  

18 

17 
13 

15 

12 

8 

•3 
g 

c 

500 
706 
169 

420 

588 
139 

so 

118 
30 

84.0 
83.3 
82.3 

12,960.50 
6,580.00 
9,901.00 

120  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

History  of  Strikes,  1881-1911. 

Table  6.  Strikes  and  Lockouts  in  the  Tailoring  Trade, 
1881-1911. 

(a)  Source  and  Accuracy.  The  figures  for  the  first  pe- 
riod, covering  the  six  years  from  1881  to  1886,  inclusive,  are 
taken  from  the  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Labor,  published  in  1887.  They  represent 
a  summary  of  the  tables  already  given  in  the  text  of  Chapter 
3,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  early  American  unions. 
These  figures  can  not  be  regarded  as  exhaustive;  they  appear 
to  include  only  the  most  important  strikes  of  the  period.148 

Following  1886  there  is  a  period  of  eight  and  one-half 
months,  to  the  middle  of  August,  1887,  for  which  we  have 
no  record.  Beginning  with  October,  1887,  the  files  of  The 
Tailor  are  available,  and  they  give  a  record  beginning  with 
the  Convention  which  concluded  on  August  15.  From  this 
point  down  to  June  30,  1903,  the  figures  are  taken  from  the 
biennial  reports  of  the  General  Secretary  of  the  Tailors'  Na- 
tional Union.  For  the  two  months  from  July  i  to  August  31, 
1903,  the  strike  benefit  has  been  compiled  from  the  monthly 
expense  accounts  in  The  Tailor,  but  the  other  items  are  not 
supplied.  Beginning  with  September  i,  1903,  the  reports 
found  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Annual  Conventions  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  have  been  followed.  These 
reports  were  furnished  by  the  General  Secretary  of  the  Tail- 
ors' Union  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Federation,  and  are  slightly 
more  complete  than  those  published  by  the  tailors  in  their  own 
Journal. 

i4SFor  the  year  from  August,  1884,  to  August,  1885,  it  is  possible  to 
check  in  part  the  completeness  of  the  report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  by  comparing  his  report  with  the  one  given  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  1885  Convention  of  the  Tailors'  National  Union.  These  Proceed- 
ings speak  of  eleven  strikes  during  the  year,  while  the  U.  S.  Report  only 
names  six.  Tailors'  strikes  are  especially  hard  for  the  U.  S.  investigators 
to  list,  as  they  are  often  small  affairs,  and  involve  members  working  at 
home. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  121 

There  are  a  few  gaps  in  the  table,  which  will  be  explained 
in  connection  with  the  special  notes  on  each  period.  In  con- 
nection with  all  figures  furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Tailors,  it  should  be  noted  that  they  are  not  to  be  accepted 
as  mathematically  exact,  but  are  based  upon  the  best  data 
that  the  Secretary  was  able  to  obtain  from  the  expense  ac- 
counts of  the  National  Union  and  from  the  correspondence 
with  local  unions  regarding  the  strikes.  It  is  believed  that 
the  figures  are  fairly  reliable  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

(b)  Definitions  and  Notation.  A  disturbance  originating 
in  several  stores  in  a  given  city  at  about  the  same  date  is 
counted  as  a  single  strike.  The  writer  has  followed  the  prac- 
tice of  the  officers  of  the  Tailors'  Union  in  this  matter. 
Where  necessary  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor  have  been  modified  to  agree  with  this  method 
of  recording  strikes. 

Each  strike  has  been  counted  in  the  period  during  which 
it  terminated.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  tabulate  the  re- 
sults. Strike  records  are  based  largely  upon  benefit  paid, 
and  strikes  lasting  only  a  few  days,  so  that  no  benefit  was 
due  under  the  union  laws,  are  not,  as  a  rule,  counted  at  all. 

Strikes  by  which  the  journeymen  secured  all  or  a  part  of 
their  demands,  or  by  which  reductions  or  other  aggressions 
upon  the  part  of  the  employers  were  successfully  resisted, 
are  listed  as  "won  or  compromised."  Strikes  where  the  men 
went  back  to  work  without  securing  any  of  their  demands, 
or  where  they  were  obliged  to  accept  reductions,  are  listed  as 
"lost."  Members  involved  in  won  or  compromised  strikes  are 
held  to  have  been  "benefited."  Members  involved  in  lost 
strikes  are  held  to  have  been  "not  benefited."  The  term  "ben- 
efited" in  this  connection  refers  to  the  direct  result  of  the 
strike  in  question;  no  attempt  is  made  to  estimate  the  ab- 
solute results  of  strikes,  or  to  balance  gains  in  wages  and 


122  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

conditions  against  losses  of  time  and  expenses  of  union  main- 
tenance. 

(c)    Special  Notes. 

January  i,  i88i-December  31,  1886.  Of  the  35  strikes 
listed  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  during  this  period, 
25  took  place  after  the  organization  of  the  National  Union 
in  i883.149  Neither  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  nor  the 
Tailors'  Journal  contains  a  complete  account  of  strike  benefit 
paid  for  this  period,  and  this  item  is  therefore  omitted  from 
the  table.150  Strikes  during  this  period  were  comparatively 
successful,  75.8  per  cent  of  the  members  involved  being  bene- 
fited. 

August  15,  i88?-July  j i,  1889.  During  this  period  unions 
formerly  not  affiliated  were  joining  the  National,  and  in  addi- 
tion a  number  of  new  locals  were  formed.  In  most  cases, 
upon  becoming  members  of  the  national  organization,  the 
local  unions  presented  new  bills  of  prices  to  their  employers, 
and  after  short  strikes  many  of  these  bills  were  signed.  The 
number  of  members  involved  is  not  given  by  the  Secretary, 
but  he  states  that  during  the  period  about  one-third  of  the 
membership  secured  advances  in  wages  averaging  at  least 
ten  per  cent.151 

August  i,  1 889- July  31,  1891.  Here  again  the  exact  num- 
ber of  members  involved  in  strikes  is  not  given,  but  it  is 
stated  that  of  the  219  strikes  reported,  52  were  against  re- 
ductions, the  other  167  being  mainly  for  increase  in  wages. 
Reductions  were  successfully  resisted  in  all  except  18  cases. 
Of  the  strikes  for  causes  other  than  reductions,  151  were 

i49See  table,  Chapter  3. 

iso  From  August,  1884,  to  August,  1885,  the  strike  benefit  paid 
amounted  to  $3,286.45.  (Proceedings  of  the  1885  Convention.) 

isiTailor,  Sept.,  1889,  p.  i.  Report  of  the  General  Secretary  to  the 
1889  Convention. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  123 

successful,  and  only  16  were  lost.152  The  large  number  of 
strikes  during  this  period  is  explained  by  the  rapid  affiliation 
of  new  locals,  which  endeavored  as  a  rule  to  improve  their 
conditions  at  once. 

August  i,  i8pi-June  30,  1893.  Of  150  strikes  during 
this  period,  135  were  successful.  The  remaining  15,  how 
ever,  that  were  lost,  included  serious  strikes  in  Denver,  Col- 
orado; Winnipeg,  Canada;  Erie,  Pennsylvania;  Steuben- 
ville,  Ohio;  and  Rloomington,  Illinois.  The  outcome  of 
these  strikes  called  forth  the  following  remark  in  the  Secre- 
tary's report: 

"In  every  one  of  the  above  cases  and  many  others  the 
Unions  assured  the  General  Executive  Board  that  the  de- 
mands made  by  the  union  could  and  surely  would  be  secured 
by  a  very  short  contest,  but  the  outcome  proved  that  they 
had  not  the  least  conception  of  the  resistance  they  would  have 
to  meet.  This  is  the  very  worst  kind  of  generalship,  and  no 
union  should  make  such  blunders."153  During  this  period, 
and  in  fact  throughout  the  history  of  the  Union,  the  greater 
part  of  the  strikes  were  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  wages 
or  resisting  reductions.  The  number  of  members  involved, 
benefited,  etc.,  is  not  stated  in  the  Secretary's  report. 

July  i,  i8$>3-June  30,  1897.  This  period  was  largely  one 
of  business  depression,  and  trade  disturbances  seem  to  have 
been  so  numerous  that  no  definite  record  was  kept  by  the 
Secretary,  except  of  the  strike  benefit  payments.  In  his  re- 
port to  the  1897  Convention  appears  the  following  state- 
ment :  "During  the  four  years  strikes  and  lockouts  have  been 
constant,  and  many  of  them  were  the  largest  that  have  ever 
engaged  our  craft  on  this  continent.  While  many  were  lost, 
others  compromised,  yet  we  find  that  the  majority  of  all  such 

i52Tailor,  Aug.,  1891,  p.  2. 
,  Aug.,  1893,  p.  2. 


124  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

conflicts  were  won  by  our  unions."154  By  all  odds  the  most 
important  of  the  strikes  during  this  period  was  that  in  New 
York  City.  In  June,  1894,  while  business  was  still  suffering 
from  the  recent  panic,  fourteen  of  the  leading  merchants  of 
New  York  notified  their  men  individually  that  after  June  23, 
all  work  must  be  done  at  a  ten  per  cent  reduction.  The 
bosses,  moreover,  refused  to  carry  on  any  negotiations  with 
the  union,  or  to  recognize  union  committees.155  A  bonded 
agreement  was  entered  into  by  the  employers,  with  a  $1000 
forfeit  and  a  $50  penalty  in  case  of  violation.  This  agree- 
ment bound  the  parties  concerned  to  make  a  reduction  in 
wages  amounting  to  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifteen 
per  cent,  and  set  forth  in  justification  for  this  action  that  the 
reduction  was  to  be  "temporary  and  provisional  only,"  until 
the  industrial  crisis  should  be  passed.150  The  journeymen 
determined  to  resist  the  reduction,  and  the  support  of  the 
National  Union  was  secured.  In  view  of  the  low  condition 
of  the  general  fund  ($3,924.87  on  July  i,  1894),  the  National 
Union  did  not  promise  full  strike  benefit,  but  undertook  to 
raise  money  by  every  means  in  its  power,  and  to  give  as 
much  assistance  as  possible.157  With  the  aid  of  loans  from 
local  union  treasuries,  and  the  additional  aid  of  a  special 
levy,  which  was  ordered  by  a  vote  of  the  general  membership 
in  accord  with  the  constitution,  the  National  Union  was  en- 
abled to  pay  to  New  York  during  this  strike  the  sum  of 

i54Tailor,  Aug.,  1897,  P-  2.  For  two  years  from  Oct.  i,  1895,  to  Sept. 
30,  1897,  statistics  of  tailors'  strikes  are  given  in  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  report.  These  indicate  that  during  the  period  named  there 
were  55  strikes,  of  which  43  were  won  or  compromised,  and  12  were 
lost.  2,782  members  were  involved,  but  the  number  benefited  and  not 
benefited  is  not  stated.  These  figures  are  not  inserted  in  Table  6,  for  the 
reason  that  they  do  not  follow  the  fiscal  periods  of  the  Tailors'  Union, 
which  have  been  used  as  the  basis  for  the  early  part  of  that  table. 

155Tailor,  July,  1894,  p.  4. 
15B Tailor,   Sept.,   1894,  pp.  2-3. 
ir>7Tailor,  Aug.,  1894,  p.  9. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  125 

$io,8i7.O5.15S  In  spite  of  this  liberal  support  the  strike  was 
lost,  and  it  was  called  off  September  29,  i894.159  As  indicated 
in  the  special  notes  to  Table  i,  the  result  of  this  strike  was 
the  almost  complete  loss  of  the  New  York  Union. 

July  i,  1897-  June  30,  1899.  For  this  period  little  special 
comment  is  required.  Business  conditions  were  much  better 
than  during  the  preceding  period,  and  strikes  were  generally 
short  and  successful.  The  strike  expense  was  small,  and  the 
percentage  of  members  benefited  (96.3  per  cent),  was  higher 
than  for  any  other  similar  period  for  which  this  item  is  re- 
corded. 

July  iy  1  899-  June  30,  ipoi.  The  table  gives  the  essential 
facts  for  this  period.  No  reductions  wrere  accepted  by  the 
unions,  the  six  strikes  lost  being  for  increase  of  wages  or 
for  the  free  shops.  The  strike  benefit  bill  for  the  period  was 
rather  high,  ($28,463.25).  The  greater  part  of  this  was 
expended  on  a  few  contests.160 

July  i,  ipoi-June  30,  -Tpoj.  It  is  difficult  to  express  in 
statistical  form  the  situation  during  this  term.  As  reported 
by  the  Secretary,  there  was  no  strike  during  this  period  which 
was  lost  completely.161  At  the  same  time  it  would  not  be 
correct  to  say  that  all  the  members  involved  were  benefited, 
for  the  reason  that  in  some  cities  the  union  lost  control  of 
certain  establishments,  but  obtained  a  victory  in  others.  It 
has  therefore  been  decided  in  posting  the  table  to  report  all 
strikes  as  "won  or  compromised,"  but  to  make  no  attempt 
to  give  an  exact  division  of  the  number  involved  into  those 
benefited  and  those  not  benefited.  It  seems  certain  that  the 
unions  came  very  near  to  winning  all  of  their  strikes  during 
this  period.  The  strike  benefit  paid  was  greater  than  for  any 


Nov.,  1894,  P-  8. 
i59Tailor,  Oct.,  1894,  P-  8. 
iGOTailor,  Aug.,  1901,  p.  3. 
,  Aug.,  1903,  p.  3. 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

previous  term  of  equal  length.  About  half  of  the  entire  sum 
was  paid  to  three  local  unions:  Buffalo,  New  York;  Dallas, 
Texas;  and  Washington,  D.  C. 

July  i,  1903- Aug.  31,  1903.  Only  the  strike  benefit  is 
listed  for  these  two  months.  The  division  is  inserted  to  bridge 
the  gap  between  the  report  of  the  Tailors'  Secretary  to  the 
Committee  in  1903,  and  his  report  to  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  for  the  term  beginning  Sept.  i,  1903. 

Sept.  i,  1 90 3- Aug.  31,  1904.  During  this  year  the  strike 
benefit  paid  amounted  to  $44,315.00,  or  more  in  a  single  year 
than  in  any  two  years  previous.  This  great  expense  was  due 
in  the  main  to  strikes  in  five  cities :  Kansas  City,  Denver, 
Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  Milwaukee,  and  Cleveland.  The  situa- 
tion in  these  cities  was  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  New  York 
in  1894,  as  the  merchants  were  organized  and  were  deter- 
mined to  break  the  power  of  the  unions.  This  effort,  which 
was 'backed  in  a  large  measure  by  a  national  union  of  mer- 
chants, known  as  the  Merchant  Tailors'  Protective  Associa- 
tion, was  contemporaneous  with  the  formation  of  "union- 
smashing"  employers'  associations  in  a  number  of  industries. 
The  strikes  in  the  five  cities  mentioned  above  were  disastrous 
to  both  merchants  and  men.  In  some  cases  the  unions  suf- 
fered a  technical  defeat,  being  obliged  to  call  the  strike  o>ff 
without  securing  any  formal  recognition  or  concession  from 
the  bosses.  The  unions  were  not,  however,  destroyed,  and 
after  a  few  months  were  about  as  strong  as  ever,  while  the 
bosses  never  recovered  completely  the  trade  they  had  lost 
during  the  trouble.  While  these  large  strikes  were  pending 
the  Executive  Board  of  the  Tailors'  National  Union  employed 
their  authority  to  prevent  strikes  elsewhere,  in  order  that  the 
defense  might  be  concentrated  in  the  cities  were  the  Employ- 
ers' Associations  were  strongest.  By  this  policy  it  was  found 
possible  to  finance  the  strike  without  incurring  any  deficit  in 
the  general  fund,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  firm  resist- 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  127 

ance  of  the  unions  discouraged  the  employing  tailors  of  the 
country  from  similar  tactics  in  other  localities. 

Sept,  i,  ip04-Aug.  31,  ipo/.  (Three  periods.)  During 
these  three  years  it  is  seen  that  the  percentage  of  success  rises 
very  materially,  and  that  the  cost  of  strikes  is  considerably 
lower  than  in  1903-1904.  The  struggles  of  the  previous  year 
seem  to  have  had  a  salutary  effect,  and  to  have  disposed  both 
sides  toward  a  more  conciliatory  attitude. 

Sept.  i,  iqoj-Aug.  31,  /pop.  (Two  periods.)  During 
this  time  the  very  large  sum  of  $91,574.35  was  paid  for  strike 
benefit.  Of  this*  more  than  two-thirds  was  paid  to  five  cities : 
Los  Angeles,  California;  Ithaca,  New  York;  Kingston,  On- 
tario, Canada;  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania;  and  Oakland. 
California.  The  most  serious  contest  was  that  in  Los  An- 
geles, which  was  a  part  of  the  general  movement  in  that  city 
against  trade  unionism.  The  employing  tailors  "locked  out" 
all  of  their  workmen,  112  in  number,  and  gave  notice  that 
union  men  would  not  be  employed.  The  local  union  in  Los 
Angeles  made  an  exceptionally  vigorous  defense,  which  was 
aided  by  the  National  Union,  by  other  local  unions,  and  by 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  As  a  result  the  employ- 
ers' combination  was  broken,  and  at  the  end  of  the  strike  the 
Los  Angeles  union  had  more  members  and  more  union  shops 
than  at  the  beginning. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  the  table  that  for  the  year  1907-1908 
the  last  three  columns  are  not  posted.  This  is  for  the  reason 
that  the  figures  required  do  not  appear  in  the  American  Fed- 
eration of  Labor  report  for  1908,  probably  for  the  reason 
that  the  Los  Angeles  strike  was  still  pending  on  August  31, 
1908,  and  the  results  could  not  be  given. 

Sept.  r,  ipop-Aug.  31,  1911.  (Two  periods.)  During 
the  last  two  years  covered  by  the  table,  it  is  seen  that  the 
expense  of  strikes  was  comparatively  low,  and  that  a  large 
percentage  of  the  members  involved  were  benefited.  This  is 


128 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


an  illustration  of  the  same  fact  shown  five  years  before,  that 
a  successful  resistance  by  the  journeymen  in  severe  contests  is 
worth  while  from  the  union  standpoint,  and  reduces  materially 
the  future  trouble  that  they  have  to  meet. 

///.      Wages  and  Conditions  of  Union  Tailors, 
January  i,  1912. 

Plan  of  investigation.  In  December,  1911,  a  circular  was 
sent  out  to  the  corresponding  secretaries  of  all  local  unions 
affiliated  with  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  of  America.162 
It  was  requested  that  returns  be  made  by  February  i,  1912. 
A  number  of  unions  responded  later  than  this,  and  the  tables 
were  held  open  until  April  15,  at  which  time  the  form  was 
made  up,  and  all  returns  later  than  that  date  are  excluded. 
Of  308  unions  affiliated  at  date  of  circular,  73  responded  in 
time  to  be  listed.  List  of  local  unions  and  copy  of  question- 
naire are  herewith  submitted. 


LOCAL  UNIONS  AFFILIATED  WITH  THE  JOURNEYMEN 
TAILORS  UNION  OF  AMERICA,  DECEMBER  15,  1911. 


Alabama. 

75 — Birmingham. 
145 — Montgomery. 
242 — Mobile. 
260 — Dothan. 

Arkansas. 

36— Little  Rock. 

73— Fort  Smith. 
140 — Hot  Springs. 
416 — Helena. 

California. 

2 — San  Francisco. 
81 — Los  Angeles. 
82 — Los  Angeles. 
84— Stockton. 


107 — Sacramento. 
108 — San  Jose. 
159 — 'Palo  Alto. 
266— Oakland. 
277 — .San  Diego. 
339 — Bakersfield. 
366 — Fresno. 
414 — Eureka. 

Canada. 

23 — Peterboro,  Ont. 
30 — London,  Ont. 

33— W9odstock>  Ont 
58 — Haileybury,  Ont. 
70 — Winnipeg,  Man. 

114 — Windsor,  Ont. 

117 — Brantford,  Ont. 


132 — Toronto,  Ont. 
138— Lethbridge,  Alta. 
141— St.  Thomas,  Otat. 
142— Victoria,  B.  C. 
143— Ottawa,  Ont. 
149 — Hamilton,  Ont. 
156 — West  Toronto,  Ont. 
175— Revelstoke,  B.  C. 
178— Vancouver,  B.  C. 
183— Amherst,  N.  S. 
191— Fort  William,  Ont. 
194 — Calgary,   Alta. 
226 — Sudbury,  Ont. 
233 — Edmonton,  Alta. 
235 — St.  Catherines,  Ont. 
241 — Sarnia,  Ont. 
252 — Rossland,   B.   C. 
262 — Brockville,   Ont. 


i62Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  E.  J.  Brais,  National  Secretary  of 
the  Tailors'  Union,  it  was  made  possible  to  have  this  circular  sent  out 
from  the  National  Headquarters,  with  the  endorsement  of  the  general 
office,  and  at  their  expense. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE 


129 


263 — Kingston,   Ont. 
264 — Berlin,  Ont. 
27$ — Regina,  Sask. 
297 — Guelph,  Ont. 
317 — Montreal,  Que. 
355 — Cornwall,  Ont. 
409— Halifax,  N.  S. 
410— St.  John's,  N.  F. 

Colorado. 

3 — Denver. 
21 — Leadville. 
102 — Pueblo. 
150— Colorado  Springs. 
280 — Victor  and  Cripple 
Creek. 

Connecticut. 

7 — D  anbury. 

22 — New  Haven. 

28 — Bridgeport. 

95 — Stamford. 
139 — Hartford. 
171 — New  Haven. 
364 — South  Norwalk. 

District  of  Columbia. 
188— Washington. 

Florida. 

279 — Pensacola. 
319 — Jacksonville. 

Georgia. 

51 — Atlanta. 
128 — Macon. 
174 — Savannah. 
206 — Columbus. 
216 — Augusta. 
269 — Bainbridge. 

Idaho. 

170 — Boise. 
26i_Wallace. 

Illinois. 

5 — Chicago. 

8 — Champaign. 
19 — Peoria. 
24 — Bloomington. 
34 — Rock  Island. 


60 — Decatur. 

65— De  Kalb. 
115— Joliet. 
129 — Alton. 
135— Springfield. 
152 — Danville. 
161— Rockford. 
169 — Galesburg. 
180 — Quincy. 
190 — Streator. 
212 — Jacksonville. 
222— Ottawa. 
223 — Elgin. 
281 — Canton. 
294— Belleville. 
298 — Murphysboro. 
337 — Kankakee. 
360— Pekin. 
368 — Mattoon. 
370 — Moline. 
375— Chicago  Heights. 
376 — Freeport. 
426 — Pontiac. 
428— Dwight. 

Indiana. 

16 — South  Bend. 

31 — Terre   Haute. 

32 — Peru. 
100 — Anderson. 
118— Ft.   Wayne. 
146 — Elwood. 
154 — .Marion. 
157 — Indianapolis. 
165 — Richmond. 
220 — Logansport. 
234 — Muncie. 
254 — Vincennes. 
296— Elkhart. 
331 — Wabash. 
362 — Kokomo. 

Iowa. 

15 — Des  Moines. 

42 — Waterloo. 

63 — Ottumwa. 

72 — Dubuque. 
loo— Fort  Dodge. 
147 — Oskaloosa. 
158 — Fort  Madison. 
160 — Cedar   Rapids. 
177 — Keokuk. 
207 — Burlington. 


230 — Clinton. 
231— Council  Bluffs. 
232 — Sioux  City. 
300 — Davenport. 
346 — Centerville. 

Kansas. 

9 — Leavenworth. 
20 — Wichita. 
120— Topeka. 
122 — Parsons. 
127 — Atchison. 
286 — Salina. 
287— Arkansas  City 
378 — Independence. 

Kentucky. 

49 — Louisville. 
124 — Owensboro. 

Louisiana. 
187— New   Orleans. 

Maryland. 
4 — Baltimore. 

Massachusetts. 

12 — Boston. 

26 — Springfield. 
103 — Lowell. 
105 — Brockton. 
168 — Northampton. 
245 — Holyoke. 
295— Pittsfield. 
353 — North  Adams. 
403 — Andover. 

Michigan. 

29 — Grand  Rapids. 

83 — Saginaw. 
121 — Kalamazoo. 
202— Battle   Creek. 
210 — Ann  Arbor. 
229 — Detroit. 
240 — Port  Huron. 

Minnesota. 

88— St.  Paul. 
89 — Minneapolis. 
97 — Duluth. 
303 — Grand   Rapids. 


130 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


306 — Virginia. 
315 — Hibbing. 

Missouri. 

6 — Sedalia. 

ii — St.   Louis. 

61 — St.  Joseph. 

64 — Kansas  City. 

76 — Springfield. 
113— Kansas    City. 
250 — Poplar  Bluff. 
283 — Hannibal. 
290 — Joplin. 
382 — Moberly. 

Montana. 

25— Butte  City. 

43— Great  Falls. 
151 — Anaconda. 
265 — Helena. 

Nebraska. 
92 — Omaha. 
273 — Lincoln. 

New   Jersey. 
77 — New  Brunswick. 
199 — Paterson. 

New  York. 

14— Troy. 

18 — Poughkeepsie. 

45 — Syracuse. 

46— Buffalo. 

52 — Binghampton. 

69 — Schenectady. 

87 — Rome. 

91 — Elmira. 

93 — Ithaca. 
172 — Niagara   Falls. 
176— Salamanca. 
198— Albany. 
259— Rochester. 
326 — Gloversville. 
390 — New   York  City. 
396— Cortland. 

North  Carolina. 

123 — Wilmington. 
148 — Rocky  Mount. 
267— Winston-Salem. 
422— Charlotte. 
423 — Asheville. 


North  Dakota. 
237— Fargo. 

Ohio. 

27 — Columbus. 

41 — Akron. 

48— Niles. 

50— Bucyrus. 

53 — Youngstown. 

94 — Delaware. 

98 — Zanesville. 
no — Findlay. 
144 — Canton. 
155 — Cincinnati. 
162 — Cleveland. 
163 — Lima. 
166— Toledo. 
181— Steubenville. 
203 — Springfield. 
205 — Massillon. 
248 — Fremont. 
249— Mansfield. 
251 — Newark. 
253 — Coshocton. 
272 — East  Liverpool. 
284 — Cambridge. 
373 — Norwalk. 

Oklahoma. 

227 — Muskogee 

271— Tulsa. 

314— Oklahoma  City. 

Oregon. 
74 — Portland. 

Pennsylvania. 

10— Warren. 

56— Philadelphia. 

57 — Franklin. 

67— Erie, 
loi— Meadyille. 
119— Oil  City. 
125 — Ridgway. 
130— New   Castle. 
131— Pittsburg. 
196 — Williamsport. 
25&— Wilkesbarre. 
288— Bradford. 
308— Dubois. 
309 — Hanover. 
322 — Washington. 
348 — Lancaster. 


381 — Allentown. 
419 — Sharon. 

Rhode  Island. 
13 — Providence. 

South  Carolina. 

17 — Charleston. 
201 — Columbia. 
305 — Greenville. 

South  Dakota. 

221 — Sioux   Falls. 
393 — Aberdeen. 

Tennessee. 

38 — Knoxville. 
79 — Memphis. 
85— Nashville. 
276 — Chattanooga. 

Texas. 

78— Dallas. 

96— Waco. 

99 — Fort  Worth. 
126 — Palestine. 
153— Paris. 
214 — San  Antonio. 
247 — Houston. 
321 — Beaumont. 

Utah. 

59_Salt  Lake  City, 
in — Ogden. 

Virginia. 

40 — Norfolk. 

44 — Richmond. 

47 — Lynchburg. 

54 — Danville. 
197 — Roanoke. 
292 — Charlottesville. 

Washington. 

68— Tacoma. 

71— Seattle. 
104 — Raymond. 
1 06 — Spokane. 
112 — Olympia. 
2ii — Bellingham 
238— North  Yakima. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  131 

335 — Everett.  Wisconsin.  213 — Kenosha. 

399-Hoquiam.  35-Oshkosh.  215— Madison. 

„„       ,r-     •  •  55— Portage  225 — Fond  du  lac. 

West  Virginia.  M_LaCrosse.  282-Green  Bay. 

133 — Huntington.  86 — Milwaukee.  328 — Manitowoc. 

137 — Charleston.  164 — Superior.  361 — Wausau. 

246— Wheeling.  179— Eau  Claire.  384— Watertown. 

285-Fairmont.  i92-Ashland.  ^-Racine. 

379— Clarksburg.  209— Neenah. 

CIRCULAR  OF  INFORMATION. 
(To  be  returned  to  Headquarters  on  or  before  Feb'y  i,  1912). 

1.  What  was  the  date  of  organization  of  the  earliest  Tailors'  Union 

in  your  city  of  which  you  have  any  knowledge  ?    

2.  When  was  your  present  union  organized  ?    

3.  Number  of  members  in  good  standing  January  i,  1912?  

4.  How  many  members  working  in  free  shops  ?   

5.  How   many  legitimate  merchant   tailoring    establishments     in    your 

city?    

6.  How  many  of  these  establishments  are  union  shops?   

7.  What   is   the   average  price   to   customers   of   suits   made  by    firms 

employing  your  members  ?   Highest  ?  

Lowest?   

8.  How  many  non-union  tailors  now  employed  in  your  city,  who  would 

be  eligible  to  join  the  J.T.U.  of  A?   

9.  Are  average  wages  of  union  tailors  in  your  city  higher  than  those 

of  non-union  tailors  ?    What  is  the  per  cent  of 

difference?    

10.     How  many   of  your  members  on  the  "sectional"   or  team  system? 


n.     What  is  the  full  amount  of  dues  paid  by  your  members,  both  local 

and  national  ?   

12.     How  many  apprentices  are  learning  the  trade  with  your  members? 


13.  What  is  the  rule  of  your  union  regarding  helpers  ?  

14.  Does  your  union  limit  the  hours  of  labor  ?    

15.  How  many  of  your  members  work  by  the  week?    

16.  What  is  the  average  wage  per  week  of  weekly  workers,  when  work- 

ing full  time? 

1 i )  Of  j  ourneymen 

(2)  Of  helpers 

17.  Does  your  local  union  use  the  label?    

18.  What  dp  you  estimate  to  be  the  per  cent  of  increase  in  your  price 

bills  since  your  local  union  was  organized? 

(If  your  local  was  in  existence  before   1883,  give  increase   since 
1883.) 

19.  Please  fill  out  the  following  schedule  of  prices,  showing  wage  con- 

ditions in   1890  and  in   1911.     Put  in  the  prices  paid   for  finished 


132  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

garment  in  each  case,  including  start,  try-on,  and  all  extras.  If 
your  union  was  not  in  existence  in  1890,  please  give  in  the  first 
column  the  prices  paid  in  the  year  your  union  was  organized. 

Price  Paid,          Price  Paid, 
1890.  1911. 

S.  B.  Sack  Overcoat  

D.  B.  Sack  Overcoat  .    

D.  B.  Frock  Overcoat  

D.  B.  Prince  Albert  Coat  

D.  B.  Sack  Coat  

S.  B.  Sack  Coat  

Trousers  

Vests  

Weekly  Wage,    1890 

Weekly  Wrage,   191 1 

20.     Please  answer  the   following  questions,  after  consulting  with  mem- 
bers who  have  kept  wage  accounts  in  1911  or  previous  years: 

(1)  What  are  the  average  yearly  earnings  of  coatmakers  in  your 

city  ?   

(2)  Of  vestmakers  ?    

(3)  Of  trousers-makers  ?    

(4)  Of  bushelmen  ?   

(5)  Of  weekly     workers ?    

(6)  Of  helpers?   

Returns  of   Local  Union  No...  ..of..  


The  undersigned  officers  hereby  certify  that  the  above  replies  are  correct. 

President 

L.  U.  Seal. 

Cor.  Secretary. 

Probable  accuracy  of  returns.  The  following  questions 
were  of  such  a  nature  that  the  secretaries  could  answer  them 
from  personal  knowledge,  or  with  the  aid  of  the  union  rec- 
ords. The  returns  on  these  questions  may  therefore  be  ac- 
cepted as  accurate: 

2.  When  was  your  present  union  organized? 

3.  Number   of   members   in   good   standing  January    T, 
1912? 

4.  How  many  members  working  in  free  shops? 

6.  How  many  of  these  (merchant  tailoring)  establish- 
ments are  union  shops? 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  133 

7.     What  is  the  average  price  to  customers  of  suits  made 

by  firms  employing  your  members  ? Highest  ? 

Lowest  ? 

10.  How  many  of  your  members  work  on  the  sectional 
or  team  system? 

11.  What  is  the  full  amount  of  dues  paid  by  your  mem- 
bers, both  local  and  national? 

12.  How  many  apprentices  are  learning  the  trade  with 
your  members? 

13.  What  is  the  rule  of  your  union  regarding  helpers? 

14.  Does  your  union  limit  the  hours  of  labor? 

15.  How  many  of  your  members  work  by  the  week? 

1 6.  What  is  the  average  wage  per  week  of  weekly  work- 
ers, when  working  full  time?       i.    Of  bushelmen?     2.    Of 
helpers  ? 

17.  Does  your  local  union  use  the  label? 

Concerning  the  remaining  questions  some  special  comment 
is  necessary: 

i.  What  was  the  date  of  organization  of  the  earliest 
tailors'  union  in  your  city  of  which  you  have  any  knowledge  ? 

Most  of  the  secretaries  have  answered  this  question,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  there  was  a  union  in  the  city  on  the 
date  named.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  in  some  cases  this 
union  was  not  the  earliest,  although  it  may  have  been  the 
earliest  under  the  present  National  Union.  To  avoid  con- 
fusion we  have  copied  the  returns  just  as  given,  and  have 
not  attempted  to  supply  dates  from  other  sources. 

5.  How  many  legitimate  merchant  tailoring  establish- 
ments in  your  city?163 

This  will  be  reported  quite  accurately  from  the  smaller 
cities;  in  the  larger  cities  the  figures  must  be  regarded  as 

i63For  definition  of  "legitimate  merchant  tailoring,"  see  special  notes 
to  Table  7. 


134  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

approximate  only,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  there  are  a  great 
many  small  shops,  and  without  an  exact  census  perfect  ac- 
curacy would  be  impossible. 

8.  How  many  non-union  tailors  now  employed  in   your 
city,  who  would  be  eligible  to  join  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
Union  of  America? 

As  in  question  5,  returns  will  be  accurate  from  small 
cities,  but  only  approximate  from  larger  ones. 

9.  Are  average  wages  of  union  tailors  in  your  city  higher 
than  those  of  non-union  tailors?     What  is  the  per  cent  of 
difference  ? 

It  is  the  general  impression  of  the  secretaries  that  union 
wages  are  higher  than  non-union,  but  the  per  cent  of  differ- 
ence, if  reported  at  all,  must  be  regarded  as  approximate,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  no  direct  comparison  has 
been  made. 

1 8.  What  do  you  estimate  to  be  the  per  cent  of  increase 
in  your  price  bills  since  your  local  union  was  organized? 

There  is  so  great  a  probability  of  inaccuracy  in  connection 
with  the  returns  from  this  question,  due  mainly  to  the  com- 
plexity of  the  piece-scales,  that  it  has  been  concluded  not  to 
use  the  figures  at  all  except  in  a  few  cases.164 

19.  Schedule  of  wages,  1890  and  1911. 

With  regard  to  the  second  date,  1911,  the  returns  may 
be  regarded  as  accurate,  being  copied  in  practically  all  cases 
from  actual  scales  of  prices.  The  same  will  be  true  in  most 
cases  of  the  first  date,  but  in  some  cases  the  secretary  may 
have  depended  upon  the  memory  of  old  members,  in  which 
case  the  returns  would  not  be  so  reliable.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  as  a  rule  the  unions  that  could  not  get  accurate 
figures  did  not  report  at  all,  and  that  the  returns  received 
are  reasonably  good. 

i64See  special  notes,  Table  9. 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  135 

• 
20.     Average  yearly  earnings  of  coatmakers,  vestmakers, 

etc. 

It  is  probable  that  these  have  not  been  based  upon  actual 
accounts  kept  except  in  a  few  cases,  and  that  upon  the  whole 
they  are  simply  estimates.  The  accuracy  will  vary  consid- 
erably as  between  different  unions.  It  is  the  belief  of  tailors 
whom  we  have  consulted  that  in  general  the  estimates  are  too 
low.  There  is  an  unusual  difficulty  about  calculating  yearly 
wages  in  the  tailoring  trade,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
hours  are  exceedingly  irregular,  ranging  from  1 8  to  20  hours 
a  day  down  to  zero  in  the  dull  seasons.  The  figures  are 
submitted  as  given  by  the  Secretaries,  and  an  opportunity 
may  arise  at  some  future  time  to  check  them  with  greater 
accuracy. 

Guide  to  the  tables. 

The  returns  from  Questions  i,  2,  3,  5,  6,  8,  n,  and  17 
are  found  in  Table  7. 

The  returns  from  Questions  4,  10,  12,  13,  14,  and  15  are 
found  in  Table  8. 

The  returns  from  Questions  3,  7,  9,  16,  18,  19,  and  20 
are  found  in  Table  9. 

Classification  by  geographical  sections.  In  listing  returns 
the  classification  employed  by  the  United  States  Census  Bu- 
reau in  its  bulletins  of  population  is  adopted,  as  follows: 

Section.  States. 

New  England  Maine,    New     Hampshire,     Vermont, 

Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut. 

Middle  Atlantic  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania. 

East  North  Central  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin. 

West  North  Central  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North  Da- 
kota, South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kan- 
sas. 


136  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

South  Atlantic  Delaware,  Maryland,  District  of  Co- 

lumbia, Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida. 

East  South  Central  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Miss- 
issippi. 

West  South  Central  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Oklahoma, 

Texas. 

Mountain  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado, 

New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Ne- 
vada. 

Pacific  Washington,   Oregon,  California. 

Returns  from  Canada  have  been  listed  after  the  Pacific 
division. 

At  date  of  circular  the  Journeymen  Tailors'  Union  01 
America  had  local  branches  in  all  states  except  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Delaware,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  and  Nevada. 

SUMMARY  OF  RETURNS,  BY  SECTIONS. 

Unions  Aggregate 

Section  Reporting.  Membership. 

New  England  5  186 

Middle  Atlantic  10  IAS° 

East  North  Central  25  1,898 

West  North  Central  10  573 

South  Atlantic  5  153 

East  South  Central  i  21 

West  South  Central  5  102 

Mountain  2  69 

Pacific  7  866 

Canada  3  155 


73  5,473 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  137 

It  is  seen  from  the  above  table  that  at  least  one  union 
reported  from  every  section,  and  that  in  all  73  unions  re- 
ported, with  an  aggregate  membership  of  5,473. 

LIST  OF  CITIES  OF  MORE  THAN  100,000  INHABITANTS,  FROM 
WHICH  RETURNS  HAVE  BEEN  RECEIVED,  ARRANGED  IN 
THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR  POPULATION,  TOGETHER  WITH 
THE  UNION  MEMBERSHIP  IN  EACH  CITY. 

Union 

City.  Membership 

New  York  1,000 

Chicago  1,000 

Boston  6 1 

Cleveland  1 50 

Baltimore  16 

Pittsburgh  100 

Buffalo  165 

San  Francisco  300 

Milwaukee  153 

Kansas  City  230 

Seattle  265 

Indianapolis  82 

St.  Paul  no 

Portland  185 

Atlanta  100 

Winnipeg  100 

Lowell  30 

Total  membership  in  17  cities  4,047 

The  above  list  is  inserted  for  reference  purposes,  and  also 
as  indicating  that  of  the  5,473  members  reported  from  73 
cities,  4,047  are  in  the  17  cities  named  above,  or  72.9  per 
cent. 


TABLE  7. 

GENERAL  STATISTICS. 

STATISTICS  OF  ORGANIZATION. 

JANUARY  i,  1912. 


140 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


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144  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Table  7.     General  Statistics.    Statistics  of  Organisation. 

(a)  Notation.    Dotted  lines  (..,.)  indicate  that  no  answer 
was  returned  by  the  Secretary  upon  the  particular  point  invol- 
ved.     A  blank  in  any  square  indicates  "zero"  or  "none." 

(b)  Special  notes. 

1.  Local  union  number.     This  is  the  serial  number  of  the 
local  union  in  the  filing  system  at  the  general  headquarters, 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  locality  of  the  union  or  its 
date. 

2.  Population  ipio.     Ths  is  taken  from  the  latest  bulle- 
tins of  the  United  States  Census,  with  the  exception  of  the 
three  Canadian  cities,  the  population  of  which  is  taken  from 
the  Commercial   Handbook   of  Canada    (Heaton's   Annual). 
In  the  table  the  cities  are  arranged  in  each  state  in  the  order 
of  their  population. 

3.  "Date  of  earliest  union"  and  "Date  of  present  union" 
refer  to  the  date  of  organization  of  the  local  union. 

4.  Full  monthly  dues.     This  is  the  sum  of  the  local  and 
national  dues  paid  by  each  member  in  the  city  named. 

5.  "Use  the  label?"    According  to  the  law  of  the  National 
Tailors'  Union,  the  union  label  is  the  property  of  the  Union, 
and  may  be  affixed  to  garments  under  the  following  condi- 
tions:   (i)  The  garment  must  be  made  by  a  member  of  the 
union.    (2)  All  tailors  working  for  the  employer  for  whom 
the  garment  is  made  must  be  members  of    the  union.      (3) 
The  bill  of  prices  paid  must  be  in  accord  with  an  agreement 
with  the  union.     The  label  is  protected  under  the  copyright 
laws  of  most  of  the  states,  and  journeymen  or  employers  who 
affix  it  contrary  to  the  above  conditions  can  be  prosecuted  un- 
der statute  law. 

6.  The  term,  "merchant  tailoring  establishment"  as  used 
in  this  table,  is  equivalent  to  the  term  "legitimate  merchant 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  145 

tailoring  establishment,"  as  used  in  Question  5  of  the  ques- 
tionaire,  and  the  returns  from  that  question  are  given  in  this 
part  of  the  table.  The  term  applies  to  establishments  in 
which  custom  work  of  a  high  grade  is  made  in  the  home 
city  by  skilled  journeymen.  It  excludes  houses  making  work 
on  a  factory  system  and  selling  at  a  distance  through  agenies. 

7.  Union  shops.     The  term  "union  shop"  applies  to  the 
business  establishment,  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the 
term  "workshop."    An  establishment  is  called  a  "union  shop" 
if  all  the  journeymen  employed  are  members  of  the  union, 
and  are  working  under  a  scale  approved  by  the  union.     Thus 
an  establishment  might  be  a  union  shop,  and  at  the  same  time 
there  might  be  no  workshop  furnished  by  the  employer,  the 
work  being  made  in  private  shops  or  at  home. 

In  some  cases  the  secretary  has  reported  all  establishments 
as  union  shops,  and  at  the  same  time  has  reported  a  few 
non-union  tailors  in  the  city.  In  such  cases  it  is  probable 
that  the  non-union  tailors  are  working  in  ready-made  cloth- 
ing stores  or  repair  shops,  or  in  factory  shops,  which  are 
not  reported  as  "legitimate  merchant  tailoring  establish- 
ments." 

8.  Not  union  shops.     The  term  "not  union"  has  been 
employed  instead  of  "non-union,"  for  the  reason  that    the 
latter  is  sometimes  held  to  imply  that  all  employes  of  the 
establishment  are  non-unionists,  whereas  in  some  of  the  es- 
tablishments which  are  not  "union"  there  are  both  unionists 
and  non-unionists  working. 

9.  Custom  tailors.   The  "total"  given  in  the  third  column 
under  this  head  is  found  by  adding  to  the  membership    of 
the  union  the  number  of  non-union  tailors  in  the  city  who 
would  be  eligible  to  join,  as  reported  by  the  secretary.    Eli- 
gibility of  tailors  to  membership  in  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
Union  of  America  is  determined  by  the  following  rules  in 
the  constitution :    (1910.) 


146  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

"Section  2.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
Union  of  America  shall  be  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
covering  all  tailors,  helpers,  apprentices  and  bushelmen  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  custom  made  clothing.  (Custom 
made  clothing  to  be  interpreted  as  all  clothing  made  for  men 
or  women  to  the  order  and  measure  of  each  individual  cus- 
tomer). Bushelmen  working  on  alterations  in  ready-made 
stores  shall  be  eligible  to  membership. 

"Section  175.  Resolved,  that  the  Journeymen  Tailors' 
Union  of  America  claim  jurisdiction  over  all  workers  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  legitimate  custom  tailoring,  no 
matter  what  system  of  work  is  used." 

10.  General  note.  All  statistics  in  this  and  the  following 
tables,  with  the  exception  of  the  data  respecting  early  wages, 
in  Table  9,  are  given  as  of  the  first  of  January,  1912. 

(c)    Analysis  and  conclusions. 

1.  Dates  of  organisation.     The  significant    fact    shown 
under  this  head  is  that  a  large  number  of  the  unions  have 
been  reorganized  since  their  first  appearance.     Some  unions, 
in  fact,  have  been  reorganized  several  times. 

2.  Membership.    The  membership  does  not  bear  as  close 
relation  to  the  population  of  the  towns  and  cities  in  which 
the  unions  are  located  as  might  be  expected.     Local  condi- 
tions cause  wide  discrepancies.     For  example,    in    Buffalo, 
with  about  400,000  inhabitants,  there  are  165  union  tailors, 
whereas   in  Baltimore,  with  more  than   500,000,    there    are 
only  1 6.     The  relation  of  membership  to  the  total  number 
of  tailors  in  each  city  is  taken  up  under  the  head  of  "custom 
tailors." 

?.  Pull  monthly  dues.  As  explained  in  connection  with 
Table  2,  the  present  law  of  the  union  requires  that  national 
dues  shall  be  65  cents  a  month,  and  local  dues  shall  be  not 
less  than  20  cents  a  month.  Of  72  unions  reporting,  50  en- 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  147 

force  the  minimum  of  20  cents  local  dues,  or  85  cents  in  all; 
10  unions  charge  90  cents;  5  charge  95  cents;  and  7  charge 
$i.  All  of  the  unions  reported  from  the  Pacific  section,  with 
one  exception,  charge  more  than  the  minimum  dues. 

4.  Label.     Of  73  unions  reporting,  66    use    the    label. 
Where  a  local  union  does  not  use  the  label,  either  they  have 
no  union  stores,  and  have  therefore  no  right  to  use  it,  or  else 
there  is  some  objection  to  its  use  by  employers  or  men. 

5.  Merchant    Tailoring  Establishments.     Of   1,332    es- 
tablishments reported  from  69  cities  (New  York,  Troy,  Chi- 
cago, and  San  Francisco  not  reporting),  421,  or  31.6  per 
cent  of  the  total,  are  "union  shops." 

6.  Custom  Tailors.     The  following  table  shows  the  de- 
gree of  organization  by  sections  and  on  the  whole: 


Section  Cities  custom  torn  tailors  Per  cent 

reporting.  tailors.  in  unions,  in  unions. 

New  England                            5  618  186  30.0 

Middle  Atlantic                         9  17,640  1,383  7.8 

East   North   Central  22  1,675  807  48.2 

West   North  Central               9  563  463  82.2 

South  Atlantic                           5  493  153  31.0 

East   South   Central                  i  23  21  91.3 

West  South  Central                 5  177  102  57.7 

Mountain                                     2  84  69  78.0 

Pacific                                        6  1,009  601  60.5 

Canada                                        3  342  155  48.3 

Total  67  22,624  3,940  17.4 

The  above  figures  are  misleading  unless  especial  account 
is  taken  of  the  New  York  situation.  If  New  York  is  left 
out,  there  are  66  cities  reporting,  with  a  total  of  6,624  cus- 
tom tailors,  of  whom  2,940  are  in  the  union,  or  44.4  per 
cent.  This  is  a  much  fairer  average  for  the  whole  country 
than  the  17.4  per  cent  shown  when  New  York  is  included. 

The  most  striking  fact  shown  by  the  table  with  respect 
to  degree  of  organization  in  the  different  sections  is  the 
steady  improvement  of  organization  as  we  pass  from  the 


148 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


eastern  sections  to  the  western.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the 
newness  of  the  western  country  and  the  greater  economic 
opportunity,  but  in  a  far  greater  measure  it  is  due  to  the 
situation  with  reference  to  cheap  immigrant  labor.  In  the 
New  England  and  Atlantic  states,  where  such  labor  is  plenti- 
ful, union  organization  is  very  difficult,  for  three  principal 
reasons:  (i)  Many  of  the  immigrants  have  a  low  standard 
of  living,  and  are  not  ambitious  to  improve  their  conditions. 
(2)  The  diversity  of  races  makes  it  hard  to  secure  united 
action.  (3)  The  most  intelligent  and  skilled  tailors  in  these 
sections  are  often  employers,  as  well  as  craftsmen,  being  in 
the  contracting  business,  or  having  a  number  of  helpers  un- 
der them.  Their  interest  in  unionism  is  not,  therefore,  as 
great  as  that  of  less  independent  workers.  The  Middle  West 
and  far  West  show  a  great  improvement  over  conditions  in 
the  New  England  and  Atlantic  sections ;  there  are  more  Ger- 
man, Scandinavian  and  American  tailors,  who  work  together 
and  make  good  unionists. 

DEGREE  OF  ORGANIZATION. 


Percent 
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Total  cities  reporting 67 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  149 

It  is  now  in  order  to  consider  further  the  variations  in 
the  degree  of  organization.  (See  table,  "Degree  of  Organi- 
zation.") It  is  found  that  there  is  a  distinct  mode  for  cities 
more  than  90  per  cent  organized,  24  cities  falling  within  this 
group,  out  of  67  cities  reporting.  If  we  consider  cities 
more  than  80  per  cent  organized,  we  find  that  there  are  34, 
or  more  than  half.  The  number  of  cities  lying  within  each 
group  determined  by  the  percentages  of  organization  increases 
steadily  as  the  characteristic  percentage  of  the  group  in- 
creases. This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  tailors,  upon 
the  whole,  are  fairly  well  organized  in  the  cities  reported. 
It  is  noticed  that  practically  all  of  the  cities  in  the  East  North 
Central  section  and  in  the  sections  west  of  the  Mississippi 
are  more  than  50  per  cent  organized. 

Large  and  small  cities. 

To  compare  degrees  of  organization  in  large  and  small 
cities  the  following  tables  are  compiled: 

DEGREE  OF  ORGANIZATION,  TEN  LARGE  CITIES. 

Union  Per  cent 

City  Total  custom  tailors.          members.  union. 

New  York  16,000  1,000  6.25 

Boston  461  61  13-2 

Cleveland  450  150  33-3 

Baltimore  216  16  74 

Pittsburgh  1,100  100  9-° 

Buffalo  365  165  45-2 

San  Francisco  550  300  54-5 

Milwaukee  603  153  25-3 

Kansas  City  305  230  75-4 

Indianapolis  132  82  62.1 

Portland  335  185  55-2 

Total  20,517  2,442  11.9 


150  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

DEGREE  OF  ORGANIZATION,  TEN  SMALL  CITIES. 

Union  Per  cent 

City                         Total  custom   tailors.  members.  union. 

Danbury,  Conn.                              14  14  100. 

Dubois,  Pa.                                     n  9  81.8 

No.  Adams,  Mass.                        26  16  61.5 

Logansport,  Ind.                             39  20  51.3 

Belleville,  111.                                  21  21  100. 

Burlington,  Iowa                            34  34  100. 

Ft.  Smith,  Ark.                              10  6  60. 

Owensboro,  Ky.                             23  21  91.3 

Stockton,  Calif.                              50  49  98. 

St.  Catherine's,  Ont.                     39  35  89.7 


Total  267  225  84.3 

Note.  The  population  of  each  of  the  above  cities  lies  between  10,000 
and  25,000. 

It  is  seen  that  in  the  ten  large  cities  named  there  are 
20,517  custom  tailors,  of  whom  2,442  are  in  the  unions,  or 
11.9  per  cent;  whereas  in  the  ten  small  cities,  containing 
267  tailors,  225  are  in  the  unions,  or  84.3  per  cent.  This 
great  difference  is  due  to  the  cheap  labor  in  large  cities,  al- 
ready discussed,  and  to  the  difficulty  which  the  large  city, 
by  reason  of  its  very  size,  offers  to  thorough  organizing 
work. 


TABLE  8. 

NATURE  OF  SHOPS. 

SYSTEMS  OF  PRODUCTION  AND  WAGE  PAYMENT 

JAN.    i,    1912 


152 


STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


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STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 


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NOTES  —  19  h.  2But  Help  May  be  Employed  by  Special  Consent  of  Union.  BWeekly  Workers—  9  Hours.  4Men  9  Hours—  Women  8 
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156  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Table  8.  Nature  of  shops.  Systems  of  production  and 
wage  payment. 

(a)  Notation.    As  in  Table  7,  dotted  lines  (....)  indicate 
"no  answer,"  and  a  blank  "zero"  or  "none." 

Under  the  last  column,  "helper  rule,"  the  following  ab- 
breviations are  used: 

n.h. — no  helpers  employed. 

n.r. — no  rule. 

o — no  helpers  allowed. 

i,  2,  etc. — One  helper  allowed,  two  helpers  allowed,  etc. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

1.  The  returns  on  which  this  table  is  based  show  directly 
the  following  facts:   (i)   Total  membership  of  union.     (2) 
Union  members  in  free  shops.     (3)  Union  members  on  team 
system.     (4)  Weekly  scale  workers,     (5)  Apprentices.    (6) 
Limit  hours?     (7)    Helper  rule. 

The  following  facts  are  not  shown  directly  by  the  re- 
turns: (i)  Union  members  in  rented  shops  or  at  home.  (2) 
Union  members  on  individual  system.  (3)  Piece  workers. 
The  figures  given  in  the  table  for  these  last  three  subjects 
are  derived  by  subtracting  the  figures  respectively  for  free 
shops,  team  system,  and  weekly  workers,  from  the  total  mem- 
bership. The  figures  so  obtained  are  subject  to  a  slight  cor- 
rection, in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  reporting  "total  member- 
ship" the  secretaries  have  included  members  not  working  at 
the  trade,  e.g.,  invalid  and  retired  members.  The  correction 
is  however,  not  an  important  one,  as  there  are  only  a  few 
such  members, 

2.  Methods  of  production  have  been  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter 2. 

3.  Limitation  of  hours.     The  question  sent    out    about 
this  subject  was  intended  to  refer  to  piece-workers.    Prac- 
tically all  the  unions  limit  the  hours  of  time-workers,  e.g., 
bushelmen.     It  is  believed  that  as  a  rule  the  secretaries  have 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  157 

answered  the  question  with  reference  to  piece-workers,  as 
intended.  In  some  cases  they  have  indicated  specifically  the 
meaning  of  the  answer,  and  it  is  placed  in  the  foot-notes. 

(c)  Analysis  and  conclusions. 

1.  Shops.     In  the  71   cities  reporting  on  this  question, 
(Peoria  and  Burlington  not  reporting),  there  are  5,366  union 
members,    and  of  these  2,308,  or  43  per  cent,  are    working 
in  free  shops.    In  the  17  large  cities  named  in  a  former  table, 
containing  4,047  members,  only  1,253,  or  30.9  per  cent,  are 
in  the  free  shops.     This  shows  that  the  free  shops  are  less 
frequent  in  the  large  cities ;  in  fact,  in  New  York,  Pittsburgh, 
and  Baltimore,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  no  members  in  free 
shops.     There  are,  however,  some  large  cities  where  the  rule 
does  not  hold  good,  and  where  a  large  part  of  the  members 
are  in  free  shops ;  such  cities  are  Seattle,  Portland,  San  Fran- 
cisco, St.  Paul,  Atlanta,  and  Winnipeg. 

2.  Systems  of  production.    It  is  found  by  summarizing  the 
tables  that  of  5,308  union  members  in  72  cities  (Buffalo  not 
reporting),  only  268  are  working  on  the  team  system,  the 
balance,  in  so  far  as  they  are  working  at  the  trade,  being 
employed  on  the  individual  system.     Of  the   268,   235   are 
employed  in  San  Francisco  and  Seattle  alone.     It  has  only 
been  recently  that  the  Tailors'  Union  has  consented  to  or- 
ganize workers  on  the  newer  systems,  and  there  has  not  been 
time  for  many  of  such  workers  to  be  organized;    moreover, 
the  system  itself  is  of  recent  growth.     It  seems  to  have  ob- 
tained a  greater  foot-hold  in  the  West  than  elsewhere. 

3.  Wage  payment.    Of  5,084  union  members  in  69  cities, 
(Cleveland,  Milwaukee,  San  Antonio,  and  Stockton  not  re- 
porting), 1,114  are  reported  as  working  on  a  weekly  scale. 
Of  these  255  are  in  San  Francisco  and  Seattle.     As  already 
explained,  (Chapter  2),  "team"  workers  are  usually  paid  by 
the  week,  which  accounts  for  the  large  proportion  in  these 


158  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

two  cities.     Outside  of  team  workers,  the  majority  of  weekly 
workers  are  bushelmen. 

4.  Apprentices.     In  72  cities,  (Cleveland  not  reporting), 
containing  5,323  members,    there    are    180    apprentices,    or 
about  one 'to  every  thirty  members.     This  exceedingly  small 
proportion  confirms  the  conclusion  drawn   from  studies    in 
other  industries,  that  the  apprenticeship  system  is  rapidly  de- 
clining. 

5.  Limitation  of  hours.    Of  73  cities  reporting,  only  ten 
limit  the  hours  of  piece-workers.     The  pressure  during  the 
rush  seasons  is  such  that  this  kind  of  limitation  is  almost 
impossible,  as  long  as  the  members  work  by  the  piece,  and 
are  responsible  in  a  measure  for  their  own  output. 

6.  Helper  rule.    This  question  has  been  answered  for  67 
cities,  (Joliet,  Pekin,  Kenosha,  Boston,  Seattle,  and  Dubuque 
not  reporting).    Six  unions  report  that  there  are  no  helpers 
employed  by  their  members.     Twenty-five  unions  have    no 
rule  on  the  subject.     Ten  unions  have  a  rule  that  no  helpers 
shall  be  employed.     Twenty-three  unions  permit  one  helper 
only.     This  is  the  traditional  rule  of  the  Tailors'  Union,  and 
at  one  time  was  embodied  in  their  national  constitution.    At 
the  present  tme  the  local  unions  are  permitted  to  use  their 
own  discretion  as  to  rules  on  the  subject  of  helpers.     Two 
unions  permit  as  many  as  two  helpers,  and  one,  St.  Cather- 
ine's, Canada,  reports  a  rule  of  "one  helper  to  each  shop." 


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IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  159 

Table  p.    Wages  and  Prices. 

(a)  Methods  of  wage  payment.     The  wages    of    union 
tailors  are  governed  by  contracts  with  their  employers,  which 
are  known  as  "bills  of  prices,"or  "price  bills."     These  con- 
tracts include  scales  for  piece-workers,  scales  for  time-work- 
ers, if  any  are  employed,165  and  any  other  matters  respecting 
conditions  of  employment  which  have  been  agreed  upon  by 
the  parties  concerned.     Some  price-bills  are  signed  by  a  single 
employer,  but  as  a  rule  a  union  bill  is  signed  by  several  em- 
ployers.    On  behalf  of  the  union  it  is  signed  by  the  officers 
of  the  local.     The  price-bills  are  often  elaborate,  containing 
all  the  usual  items  of  dress,  and  many  "extras." 

Helpers  are  paid  by  the  journeymen.  The  usual  rule  is 
that  the  helper  shall  receive  one-third  of  the  full  wage  for 
making  the  suit;  i.e.,  one-half  as  much  as  the  journeymen 
receives.  In  some  cities  there  are  helpers  of  more  than  the 
average  skill,  who  work  under  a  journeyman,  but  still  earn 
from  $13.00  to  $15.00  a  week.  Such  helpers  should  not  be 
confused  with  those  who  work  for  $8.00  or  $10.00  a  week. 
For  example,  Joliet,  Illinois,  reports  helpers  working  at  $13. 50 
a  week. 

(b)  Special  notes. 

1.  Abbreviations.     Under  the  heading  of  "Wages-Piece 
Rates"  the  abbreviation  S.B.  stands    for    "single-breasted," 
and  D.B.  for  "double-breasted." 

2.  Notation.     In  this  table,  where  the  secretary  made 
no  returns  for  any  item,  or  where  the  meaning  of  the  returns 
was  not  plain,  a  blank  has  been  used. 

3.  All  returns  are  listed  as  received  from  the  secretaries, 

165In  most  shops  the  bushelman  is  the  only  weekly  worker,  but  there 
are  cases  where  coatmakers,  vestmakers,  etc.,  are  employed  by  the  week, 
and  some  cases  where  a  shop  employs  both  piece  and  weekly  workers,  in 
addition  to  the  bushelman. 


160  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

and  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  go  beyond  the  returns  or 
to  revise  the  estimates  given. 

4.  Per  cent  of  increase  in  piece-rates  (est.).    Where  the 
secretary  reported  the  prices  for  only  one  date,  but  gave  an 
estimate  of  the  per  cent  of  increase  between  the  two  dates 
named,  this  estimated  per  cent  is  inserted,  in  order  to  give 
some  idea  of  what  the  prices  on  the  other  dates  were.     In 
all  other  cases,  the  probable  inaccuracy  of  the  percentages 
reported  is  such  that  they  have  not  been  inserted,  and  the 
figures  are  left  to  speak  for  themselves,  except  where  there 
has  been  no  increase,  in  which  case  a  zero  has  been  inserted. 

5.  Piece-rates,  first  and  second  dates.     It    is    probable 
that  in  some  cases  the  secretary  has  given  under  the  first  date 
the  wages  as  they  were  on  the  first  price-bill  negotiated  by 
the  union,  such  wages  being  higher  than  wages  paid  prior  to 
organization.    The  table  will  not  show  in  such  cases  the  com- 
plete advance  secured  by  the  organization,  but  only  the  differ- 
ence between  the  earliest  and  latest  union  bills.     Thus,  for 
example,  the  secretary  in  Watertown,  Wisconsin,  reports  in 
a  note  to  his  returns  that  coatmakers'  wages  have  gone  up 
60  per  cent  over  the  old  non-union  bill,  whereas  the  table 
shows  only  16  to  20  per  cent  change  in  the  piece-rates  for 
coats,  after  the  first  union  bill  went  in. 

6.  Time  rates.    Journeymen's  weekly  wage.    The  figure's 
in  this  column  apply  to  weekly  scale    workers    only.     The 
figures  given  are  for  full-time  wages. 

7.  Estimated  average  yearly  earnings,  1911.     "Employ- 
ment estimated  at  250  days."     This  estimate  of  employment 
does  not  apply  rigorously  to  each  class  of  trade.     It  is  the 
best  estimate  that  the  writer  was  able  to  obtain  of  actual 
average  yearly  employment,  counting  out  all  time  lost,  and 
estimating  a  standard  full-time  day  at  ten  hours.     The  note 
was  inserted  to  indicate  that  the  estimates  given  are  of  actual 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  161 

earnings,  and  not  of  full-time  earnings.  Rushelmen  lose  a 
great  deal  less  time  than  the  other  tradesmen. 

In  some  cases  the  secretaries  have  returned  estimates  of 
average  weekly  earnings.  In  such  cases  the  writer  has  used 
these  figures  as  a  basis  for  the  estimates  given  in  the  table. 

8.  Per  cent  excess  of  union  over  non-union  wages. 
Where  the  secretary  does  not  give  a  definite  answer,  the  space 
is  left  blank.  If  the  secretary  reports  "no  excess,"  a  zero  is 
posted  in  the  proper  square. 

(c)    Analysis  and  conclusions. 

AVERAGE  PIECE-  WAGE,  SINGLE-BREASTED  SACK  COATS, 
1911,  BY  SECTIONS. 

Section.  Cities.  Average1^  Piece-Wage  S.  B. 

Reporting.  Sack  Coats,  1911. 

New  England                         5  $  7.89 

Middle  Atlantic                     9  8.33 

East  North  Central  25  7.84 

West  North  Central             9  8.42 

South  Atlantic                       5  9.53 

East  South  Central              1  8.50 

West  South  Central             5  8.86 

Mountain                                 2  10.25 

Pacific                                      7  9.33 

Canada                                     3  7.78 

Totals  71  $  8.39 

Notes.  The  average  piece-wage  for  single-breasted  sack 
coats  in  1911  is  found  to  be,  in  the  71  cities  reporting,  $8.39. 
It  is  seen  that  in  the  New  England,  Middle  Atlantic,  and 
East  North  Central  sections,  and  in  Canada,  the  piece-wage 
is  below  the  average.  The  West  North  Central,  East  South 
Central,  and  West  South  Central  sections  show  a  little  above 
the  average.  The  South  Atlantic,  Mountain,  and  Pacific 
sections  show  decidedly  above  the  average.  It  is  the  general 
impression  that  wages  in  most  industries  are  higher  in  the 


averages  given  here  are  by  cities,  and  are  not  weighted  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  individual  tailors  working  under  a  given  scale. 


162  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

West,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  this  true  in  the  tailoring 
trade.  It  might,  however,  be  expected  that  the  South  At- 
lantic cities  would  show  a  lower  bill.  The  essential  reason 
why  they  do  not  is  that  in  these  cities,  including  for  example, 
Baltimore,  Charleston,  and  Jacksonville,  there  are  compara- 
tively few  tailors  in  the  unions,  and  these  are  of  the  first 
class  as  to  skill,  being  employed  on  fashionable  trade, 
where  the  employer  prefers  the  best  help,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  he  could  obtain  cheaper  help.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  this 
section  would  compare  as  favorably  as  it  does  with  the  West 
if  the  wages  of  non-union  tailors  were  included.  In  fact, 
Atlanta  reports  that  union  wages  are  20  per  cent  higher  than 
non-union,  and  Jacksonville,  25  per  cent  higher. 

In  interpreting  the  entire  table  of  wages  it  must  be  taken 
into  account  that  there  is  a  very  wide  diversity  with  refer- 
ence to  the  quality  of  the  trade  made  in  the  various  cities, 
and  frequently  this  consideration  has  a  more  direct  bearing 
on  the  piece-scales  than  any  sectional  distinction.  A  fair  in- 
dex of  the  quality  of  trade  may  be  found  in  the  retail  prices 
of  suits,  which  are  given  in  the  last  column  of  the  table. 

AVERAGE  PIECE- WAGE,  TROUSERS,  1911,  BY  SECTIONS. 

Cities  Av.  piece-wage, 

Section  reporting.  trousers,  1911. 

New  England  5  $2.22 

Middle  Atlantic  9  2.33 

East  North  Central  24  2.47 

West  North  Central  8  2.86 

South  Atlantic  5  3.06 

East  South  Central  i  2.50 

West  South  Central  5  2.85 

Mountain  2  3.75 

Pacific  7  3.19 

Canada  3  2.38 


Total  69  2.65 

Notes.  The  average  piece-wage  for  trousers  in  69  cities 
is  found  to  be  $2.65.     The  variations  by  sections  are  found 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  163 

to  be  almost  exactly  the  same  as  described  for  coats.  This 
results  from  the  fact  that  when  a  bill  of  prices  is  changed  by 
negotiation  between  the  union  and  the  employers,  all  items 
are  changed  in  proportion. 

AVERAGE  PIECE-WAGE,  VESTS,  1911,  BY  SECTIONS. 

Cities  Av.  piece-wage, 

Section.  reporting.  vests,  1911. 

New  England  5  $2.03 

Middle  Atlantic  9  2.07 

East    North   Central  24  2.04 

West   North   Central  9  2.40 

South   Atlantic  5  2.20 

East  South  Central  i  1.75 

West  South  Central  5  2.60 

Mountain  2  3.37 

Pacific  7  2.67 

Canada  3  2.05 

Total  70  2.24 

Notes.  The  average  piece-wage  for  vests  in  70  cities  is 
found  to  be  $2.24.  Variations  by  sections  are  similar  to 
those  for  coats  and  trousers,  except  that  Owensboro,  the  only 
city  reporting  in  the  East  South  Central  section,  has  an  ex- 
ceptionally low  vest  bill,  ($1.75)  ;  and  the  South  Atlantic 
section  falls  below  the  average,  probably  for  the  reason  that 
a  larger  part  of  the  work  on  vests  is  done  by  helpers  than 
in  the  case  of  the  other  items.  Helpers  are  numerous  in  the 
East,  and  do  not,  of  course,  receive  as  good  wages  as  the 
master-workmen. 

PIECE-WAGES  FOR  S.B.  SACK  COATS. 

Section.  $5.00-6.99        $7.00-8.49  $8.50-9.99    $10.00  and 

over. 

New   England  I                        3  .                        I 

Middle  Atlantic  14  22 

E.  N.  Central  4                      13  5                        3 

W.   N.   Central  14  31 

South  Atlantic  .  41 

E.  S.  Central  .  i 

W.  S.  Central  i  4 

Mountain  .  I                        I 

Pacific  i  42 

Canada  .3  . 

Totals  8  28  24  ii 


164  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

Notes.  The  figures  in  the  vertical  columns  stand  for 
cities.  The  table  for  the  Middle  Atlantic  section,  for  ex- 
ample, is  to  be  read  as  follows :  "In  the  Middle  Atlantic 
section,  i  city  reports  a  piece-wage  for  sack  coats  between 
$5.00  and  $6.99;  4  cities  report  a  piece-wage  between  $7.00 
and  $8.49;"  etc.  It  is  found  that  the  medium  prices,  from 
$7.00  to  $9.99,  inclusive,  obtain  in  52  cities,  being  about 
equally  distributed  between  the  high  and  low  medium  prices. 
This  table  also  shows  the  fact  indicated  by  former  tables, 
that  the  South  Atlantic  and  the  western  sections  show  dis- 
tinctively high  wages. 

PIECE-WAGES,  SINGLE-BREASTED  SACK  COATS,  TEN  LARGE  CITIES. 

City.  Piece-wage, 

S.  B.  Sack  Coats, 

New  York  $  9.00 

Boston  n.oo 

Cleveland  10.00 

Baltimore  9.00 

Pittsburgh  10.00 

Buffalo  11.50 

Kansas    City  12.40 

Indianapolis  9.00 

Portland  10.75 

Winnipeg  7.50 


Average  $10.01 

PIECE-WAGES,  SINGLE-BREASTED  SACK  COATS,  TEN  SMALL  CITIES. 

City.  Piece-wage, 

S.  B.  Sack  Coats,  1911. 

D anbury,    Conn.  $6.00 

Bradford,   Pa.  7.75 

North  Adams,  Mass.  8.45 

Logansport,  Ind.  7.00 

Belleville,  111.  6.00 

Burlington,  Iowa  8.50 

Fort  Smith,  Ark.  9.00 

Owensboro,  Ky.  8.50 

Stockton,  Cal.  9.00 

St.  Catherine's,  Ont  8.35 


Average  $7.85 

It  is  found  that  the  average  piece-wage  for  sack  coats  in 
ten  large  cities  is  $10.01,  and  in  ten  small  cities,  $7.85.    This 


IN  THE  CUSTOM  TAILORING  TRADE  165 

great  difference  is  due  in  the  main  to  two  causes:  (i)  Liv- 
ing is  higher  in  the  large  city,  and  it  is  necessary  to  pay  tailors 
more  to  hold  them.  (2)  More  fine  tailoring  is  done  in  the 
large  city,  and  the  employers  can  afford  to  pay  a  good  bill 
in  order  to  get  the  best  journeymen. 

LIST  OF  8  CITIES,  80  PER  CENT  OR  MORE  ORGANIZED,  GIVING  DEGREE  OF 
ORGANIZATION,  AND  INCREASE  IN  PIECE-RATES  FOR  S.B.  SACK  COATS, 
IN  21  YEARS,  1890-1911. 

Per  cent  Piece-rate         Piece-rate  Per  cent 


City 

organised. 

1890 

1911 

increase. 

Holyoke 

87 

$5.00 

$7.00 

40 

Danbury 

100 

6.00 

6.00 

0 

Bloomington 

90 

7.00 

8.50 

21 

Superior 

92 

7.00 

8.00 

14 

Sioux  City 

95 

7-25 

9.00 

24 

Olympia 

IOO 

8.00 

9.25 

15 

Stockton 

98 

9.00 

9.00 

o 

San  Jose 

89 

8.00 

9-75 

22 

LIST  OF  8  CITIES,  50  PER  CENT  OR  LESS  ORGANIZED,  GIVING  DEGREE  OF 
ORGANIZATION,  AND  INCREASE  IN  PIECE-RATES  FOR  S.B.  SACK  COATS. 
IN  21  YEARS,  1890-1911. 

Per  cent  Piece-rate         Piece-rate  Per  cent 

City  organised.  1890  1911  increase. 

Boston  13  $8.00  $11.00  37 

Pittsburgh  9  6.75  10.00  55 

Cleveland  33  5.00  10.00  100 

Baltimore  7  9.00  9.00  o 

Winnipeg  36  6.50  7.50  15 

Buffalo  45  5.00  11.50  130 

Poughkeepsie  47  5.00  6.00  20 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  50  6.00  8.65  44 

The  two  tables  above  have  been  compiled  in  the  endeavor 
to  trace  a  connection  between  the  degree  of  organization  and 
the  per  cent  of  increase  in  piece-rates  for  a  typical  garment, 
such  as  a  sack  coat,  The  results  of  this  comparison  are 
curious.  The  cities  organized  less  than  50  per  cent  show  the 
highest  percentages  of  increase.  This  can  only  be  explained 
on  the  ground  that  the  cities  the  least  organized  are  at  the 
same  time,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  largest  cities,  and  the 


166  STUDIES  IN  TRADE  UNIONISM 

influence  of  the  size  of  city  and  the  quality  of  trade  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  degree  of  organization. 

ESTIMATED  AVERAGE  YEARLY  EARNINGS,  1911. 

Under  the  head  of  yearly  earnings  little  more  is  attempted 
than  to  list  the  returns  as  reported  by  the  secretaries.  The 
considerations  by  which  the  relation  between  yearly  earnings 
and  piece-rates  is  to  be  traced  are  complicated,  and  the  writer 
is  convinced  that  there  is  a  considerable  degree  of  error  in  the 
estimates  given.  No  time  or  space  is  devoted,  therefore,  to 
an  analysis  of  these  figures,  until  such  time  as  they  can  be 
checked  with  greater  accuracy. 

RETAIL  PRICES  OF  SUITS. 

The  average  as  reported  by  the  secretaries  is  usually  given 
as  less  than  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  highest  and  lowest. 
This  upon  the  whole  is  accurate,  and  indicates  that  a  greater 
number  of  the  lower  priced  suits  are  sold. 

CONCLUDING  NOTE,  WAGES  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  UNION 

TAILORS. 

The  statistics  presented  in  the  preceding  pages  are  not 
complete,  but  they  are  fairly  representative,  both  with  ref- 
erence to  the  size  of  cities  and  with  reference  to  geographical 
sections.  No  attempt  is  made  here  to  draw  general  conclu- 
sions, as  the  diversity  of  conditions  in  the  tailoring  industry 
makes  this  well-nigh  impossible  without  more  complete  data. 
The  leading  impression  that  the  writer  has  received  from  the 
study  of  the  returns  received  is  that  local  conditions  operate 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  generally  supposed  to  determine 
the  conditions  of  the  workers,  and  that  any  attempt  to  apply 
general  economic  principles  to  an  investigation  of  this  kind 
will  have  to  be  made  in  the  light  of  the  numerous  exceptions 
and  variations  that  are  to  be  discovered. 


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